Endorphin related explanations have been associated with other forms of addiction. It has been suggested that food and alcohol can also affect endorphin levels. This could explain the craving, or the continued psychological need, for these non-narcotic substances. The argument is even stronger for those individuals addicted to running and exercise. The "runner's high" that is commonly experienced by well-conditioned athletes is likely a result of endorphin production. Nicotine has also been implicated in stimulating endorphin receptors as a basis for addiction. Schacter's (1978) view is that cigarette smokers are physically dependent on nicotine. They continue to smoke in order to maintain habitual levels of cellular nicotine so as to avoid withdrawal. Still controversial, the exposure theory, and its implications that endorphins play a role in addiction, continues to be favored by some investigators and is a focus of much research.

Exposure Theories: Conditioning Models

The basis of conditioning theories is that addiction is the cumulative result of the reinforcement of drug administration. The substance acts as a powerful reinforcer and gains control over the users behavior. In contrast to the biological models of the exposure theories, these conditioning models suggest that anyone can be driven to exhibit addictive behavior given the necessary reinforcements, regardless of their biology. The advantage of this theory is that it offers the potential for considering all excessive activities along with drug abuse within a single framework: those of highly rewarding behavior. There are many reinforcement models that have been defined including the opponent- process model of motivation and the well known classical conditioning model. Both of these models define addiction as a behavior that is refined because of the pleasure associated with its reinforcement.

There are two proposals that account for the relentless pursuit of drugs. The first is that the drug is providing an inherent, biological reward to prevent the pain of withdrawal. The second is that the experiences brought on by the drugs bring on inordinate pleasure or euphoria. These mechanisms can act independently or synergistically. In both cases, though, the primary motivation is the reinforcement of the behavior by some tremendous reward, one that is otherwise perceived to be unattainable.

Studies by Chein et al. (1964) questioned the notion that addiction is a consequence of rewarded behavior. He noted that when normal subjects were given narcotics, although they found the experience pleasurable, they did not become compulsive drug users. His work states that drugs are not inherently rewarding as one of the above proposals suggested. Furthermore, he found that a percentage of addicts actually found the initial drug experience unpleasant, but became addicted anyway. Despite these concerns, the conditioning model is well supported and emphasizes once again that addictive behavior is complex and difficult to place into a single model.

Adaptation Theories

The adaptation theories include the psychological, environmental and social factors that influence addiction. Advocates of these theories have analyzed how expectations and beliefs about what a drug will do for the user influence the rewards and behaviors associated with its use. They recognize that any number of factors, including internal and external cues, as well as subjective emotional experiences, will contribute to addictive potential. They support the views that addiction involves cognitive and emotional regulation to which past conditioning contributes.

The adaptation theory has also broadened the scope of addiction into psychological realms. Investigators have noted that drug users rely on drugs to adapt to internal needs and external pressures. The research has focused on the psychodynamics of drug reliance. Ego deficiencies and other psychological deficits, including child-rearing deficits, have been implicated. Despite their importance, these social-psychological theories exist in isolation from the other theories because of their inability to merge concepts with other, more substantiated models.

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