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After Freud
Many psychologists were trained in psychoanalysis
and then went on to create idiosyncratic theories
and methods of treatment that were based on
psychoanalysis, but altered or rejected some of its
assumptions. The most prominent change was usually
in the basic instincts; instead of focusing on sex
and death, as Freud did, many post-Freudians focus
on other needs such as the need for self-acceptance
or social support. One of the most influential of
these post-Freudians was Erik Erikson.
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
Erikson argued that the most important factor in
development was social drives: the need to meet
one's goals within a particular social group.
Unlike Freud, Erikson also extended the range of
development throughout life. Instead of focusing
on the first 5-10 years, he described the kinds of
stages and changes that people go through from
birth to death. Like Freud, he believed that the
development of personality proceeded through a set
of fixed stages through which each person passed in
the same order. At each stage, the person confronts
a new social challenge. Failure to meet the
challenge of one stage can prevent a person from
going to the next, more mature stage.
Stages in Erikson's Theory
Erikson designated eight stages of "psychosocial"
(as opposed to Freud's "psychosexual") development.
Each of those stages is described briefly below:
Trust vs. mistrust (0-1 yrs)
In this stage the infant is totally dependent on
the care of others. If the child perceives the
caretaking as satisfactory, he or she becomes
trusting; if not, he or she goes through life
with a basic mistrust of others.
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1-3 yrs)
In this stage, the child begins to act on his or
her own, often in ways that go against the
parents' wishes. The child can resolve this
conflict either by establishing self-control
(autonomy) or by punishing himself or herself with
feelings of shame, doubt, and inadequacy.
Initiative vs. guilt (3-5 yrs)
This stage is about the ability to plan in advance.
Children who learn to plan successfully and carry
through their resolutions gain a sense of
initiative; those who fail to plan or who cannot
actualize their plans gain a sense of guilt.
Industry vs. inferiority (5-12 yrs)
Children in this stage become increasingly involved
in situations where long, patient work (most often
schoolwork) is demanded of them. Those that rise
to this challenge gain a sense of industry; those
that do not feel inferior.
Identity vs. identity confusion (adolescence)
In this stage, adolescents are confronted with
questions about life style and life direction.
Those that fail to establish a positive identity
either remain in identity confusion or adopt
an inappropriate identity that can have negative
consequences for the rest of adult life.
Intimacy vs. isolation (young adult)
The social task of the young adult is to create
strong, long-lasting bonds of friendship and
love. Those that fail in this task risk remaining
isolated for the rest of their lives.
Generativity vs. stagnation (25-65 yrs)
During this stage, the individual's task is to
contribute to his or her community and
family, thereby aiding the succeeding generations.
Those that fail at this task risk stagnation, a
sense of purposelessness, and boredom.
Integrity vs. despair (late adult)
At the end of life, individuals can either feel
complete or incomplete; they can either have
integrity or fall into despair. Those that
maintain integrity can look objectively at the
broad span of life and offer advice to people in
earlier stages.
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