People
Napoleon Bonaparte
A general in the French army and leader of
the 1799 coup
that overthrew the Directory. Napoleon’s accession
marked the end of the French Revolution and the beginning of Napoleonic
France and Europe.
Jacques-Pierre Brissot
A member of the Legislative Assembly and National
Convention who held a moderate stance and believed in the
idea of a constitutional monarchy. Brissot’s followers,
initially known simply as Brissotins, eventually became
known more generally as the Girondins. After unsuccessfully
declaring war on Austria and Prussia, Brissot was removed from the
National Convention and, like many Girondin leaders, lost his life
at the guillotine during the Reign of Terror in 1793–1794.
Charles de Calonne
The controller general of finance appointed by King Louis
XVI after Jacques Necker was forced out of office
in 1781.
Calonne proposed a daring plan to shift the French tax burden from
the poor to wealthy nobles and businessmen, suggesting a tax on
land proportional to land values and a lessened tax burden for peasants.
The French nobility, however, refused to pay these taxes.
Lazare Carnot
A French soldier appointed by the Committee of Public
Safety to help reorganize the failing war effort against
Austria and Prussia. Carnot did so very effectively and
made enough of a name for himself to earn a seat as one of the first
members of the Directory. Although he was removed from
this position during the overthrow of September 4, 1797,
he went on to hold various posts in future governments.
Marquis de Lafayette
A liberal nobleman who led French forces assisting in
the American Revolution. The common people of France
revered Lafayette as an idealistic man who was dedicated to liberty
and the principles of the Revolution. Although Lafayette organized
the National Guard of armed citizens to protect the
Revolution from attack by the king, he balked as the Revolution
became more radical.
Louis XVI
The French king from 1774 to 1792 who
was deposed during the French Revolution and executed in 1793.
Louis XVI inherited the debt problem left by his grandfather, Louis
XV, and added to the crisis himself through heavy spending
during France’s involvement in the American Revolution from 1775 to 1783. Because
this massive debt overwhelmed all of his financial consultants,
Louis XVI was forced to give in to the demands of the Parlement
of Paris and convene the Estates-General—an
action that led directly to the outbreak of the Revolution. Louis
XVI was deposed in 1792 and
executed a year later.
Marie-Antoinette
The wife of King Louis XVI and, in the French
commoners’ eyes, the primary symbol of the French royalty’s extravagance
and excess. When Marie-Antoinette was executed in 1793,
she was dressed in a plain dress, common to the poorest in French
society.
Jacques Necker
A Swiss-born banker who served as France’s director general
of finance in the late 1770s,
with high hopes of instituting reform. As it turned out, Necker
was able only to propose small efforts at eliminating costly inefficiencies.
He did produce a government budget, however, for the first time
in French history.
Maximilien Robespierre
A brilliant political tactician and leader of the radical Jacobins in
the National Assembly. As chairman of the Committee of Public
Safety, Robespierre pursued a planned economy and vigorous
mobilization for war. He grew increasingly paranoid about counterrevolutionary opposition,
however, and during the Reign of Terror of 1793–1794 attempted
to silence all enemies of the Revolution in an effort to save France
from invasion. After the moderates regained power and the Thermidorian
Reaction was under way, they had Robespierre executed on
July 28, 1794.
Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès
A liberal member of the clergy, supporter of the Third
Estate, and author of the fiery 1789 pamphlet
“What Is the Third Estate?” Sieyès was one of the primary leaders
of the Third Estate’s effort at political and economic reform in
France.
Terms
August Decrees
A series of decrees issued by the National Assembly in
August 1789 that
successfully suppressed the Great Fear by releasing
all peasants from feudal contracts.
Bastille
A large armory and state prison in the center of Paris
that a mob of sans-culottes sacked on July 14, 1789,
giving the masses arms for insurrection. The storming of the Bastille
had little practical consequence, but it was an enormous symbolic
act against the ancien régime, inspired the revolutionaries,
and is still celebrated today as the French holiday Bastille Day.
Bourgeoisie
The middle and upper classes of French society
who, as members of the Third Estate, wanted an end
to the principle of privilege that governed French society in the
late 1700s.
The bourgeoisie represented the moderate voices during the French
Revolution and were represented by delegates in both the Estates-General and
the National Assembly.
Civil Constitution of the Clergy
A document, issued by the National Assembly in
July 1790,
that broke ties with the Catholic Church and established a national church
system in France with a process for the election of regional bishops.
The document angered the pope and church officials and turned many
French Catholics against the revolutionaries.
Committee of Public Safety
A body, chaired by Maximilien Robespierre,
to which the National Convention gave dictatorial powers
in April 1793 in
an attempt to deal with France’s wars abroad and economic problems
at home. Although the committee led off its tenure with an impressive
war effort and economy-salvaging initiatives, things took a turn
for the worse when Robespierre began his violent Reign of Terror in
late 1793.
Constitution of 1791
The new French constitution that in 1791 established
a constitutional monarchy, or limited monarchy,
with all executive power answerable to a legislative assembly. Under
the new constitution, King Louis XVI could only temporarily
veto legislation passed by the assembly. The constitution restricted
voting in the assembly to the upper and middle classes of French
society and abolished “nobility” as a legal order.
Declaration of Pillnitz
An August 27, 1791,
warning from Prussia and Austria announcing
that they would intervene militarily in France if any harm came
to King Louis XVI, who had just been captured trying
to escape with his family from Paris. The declaration
prompted then–Legislative Assembly leader Jacques-Pierre Brissot to
declare war on Austria and Prussia.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of
the Citizen
A document, issued by the National Assembly on
August 26, 1789,
that granted sovereignty to all French people. The declaration,
which drew from the ideas of some of the Enlightenment’s
greatest thinkers, asserted that liberty is a “natural” and “imprescriptible”
right of man and that “men are born and remain free and equal in
rights.”
Directory
The new executive branch established by the constitution
written during the moderate Thermidorian Reaction of 1794–1795.
The Directory was appointed by the legislative assembly. However,
after 1797 election
results proved unfavorable to elements in the Directory, it orchestrated
an overthrow of the assembly and maintained dubious control over
France until it was overthrown by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799.
Estates-General
A medieval representative institution in France that had
not met for 175 years
before King Louis XVI reconvened it on May 5, 1789,
to deal with the looming financial crisis. Consisting of three estates—the clergy, nobility,
and commoners, respectively—the Estates-General was
the only group that would be able to force the assorted French parlements into
accepting the controller general of finance Charles de Calonne’s
tax decrees.
Girondins
The name given to the moderates in the National
Convention. The Girondins controlled the legislative assembly
until 1793,
when, with the war going poorly and food shortages hurting French
peasants, the Jacobins ousted them from power.
Great Fear
A period in July and August 1789 during
which rural peasants revolted against their feudal landlords and
wreaked havoc in the French countryside.
Jacobins
The radical wing of representatives in the National
Convention, named for their secret meeting place in the Jacobin
Club, in an abandoned Paris monastery. Led by Maximilien Robespierre,
the Jacobins called for democratic solutions to France’s problems
and spoke for the urban poor and French peasantry. The Jacobins
took control of the convention, and France itself, from 1793 to 1794.
As Robespierre became increasingly concerned with counterrevolutionary threats,
he instituted a brutal period of public executions known as the Reign
of Terror.
Limited Monarchy
Also known as constitutional monarchy,
a system of government in which a king or queen reigns as head of
state but with power that is limited by real power lying in a legislature and
an independent court system.
Monarchy
The form of government, common to most European countries
at the time of the French Revolution, in which one king or queen,
from a designated royal dynasty, holds control over
policy and has the final say on all such matters. In France, the
Bourbon family held the monarchy, with Louis XVI as
king at the time of the Revolution.
National Assembly
The name given to the Third Estate after
it separated from the Estates-General in 1789.
As a body, the National Assembly claimed to legitimately represent
the French population. The assembly dissolved in 1791 so
that new elections could take place under the new constitution.
National Convention
The body that replaced the Legislative Assembly following
a successful election in 1792.
As one of its first actions, the convention declared the French
monarchy abolished on September 21, 1792, and
on the following day declared France a republic. Though
originally dominated by moderates, the convention became controlled by
radical Jacobins in 1793.
Parlements
A set of thirteen provincial judicial boards—one
based in Paris and the other twelve in major provincial cities—that
constituted the independent judiciary of France. The
parlements held the power of recording royal decrees, meaning that
if a parlement refused to record an edict, the edict would never
be implemented in that district.
Reign of Terror
A ten-month period of oppression and execution from late 1793 to mid-1794,
organized by Maximilien Robespierre and the Committee of
Public Safety to suppress any potential enemies of the radical
Revolution. The Reign of Terror ended with the fall of Robespierre, who
was arrested and executed in July 1794.
Robespierre’s execution ushered in the Thermidorian Reaction of 1794–1795 and
the establishment of the Directory as the head of France’s
executive government.
Sans-culottes
Urban workers and peasants, whose name—literally, “without culottes,”
the knee-breeches that the privileged wore—signified their wish
to distinguish themselves from the high classes. The mob mentality
of the sans-culottes constituted the most radical element of the
Revolution.
Tennis Court Oath
A June 20, 1789,
oath sworn by members of the Third Estate who had just
formed the National Assembly and were locked out of
the meeting of the Estates-General. Meeting at a nearby
tennis court, these members of the Third Estate pledged to remain
together until they had drafted and passed a new constitution.
Thermidorian Reaction
The post–Reign of Terror period
ushered in by the execution of Maximilien Robespierre in
July 1794 and the reassertion of moderate
power over the French Revolution. The Thermidorian Reaction brought
the Revolution’s focus back to the first stage of moderate changes
designed to benefit the business classes of French society.
Third Estate
One of the three estates in the Estates-General,
consisting of the commoners of France, whether rich merchants or
poor peasants. Despite the fact that it constituted the vast majority
of the French population, the Third Estate had just one vote in
the Estates-General—the same vote that the much smaller First Estate
(clergy) and Second Estate (nobility) each had. Frustrated with
its political impotence, the Third Estate broke from the Estates-General
on June 17, 1789,
and declared itself the National Assembly.
Tuileries
The palace in Paris in which King Louis XVI and
his family were placed under house arrest after they were forcibly
taken from their court at Versailles. The point of
removing the royal family to Paris was to allow the people to keep
a close watch on their actions.
Versailles
The royal palace built by King Louis XIV a
few miles outside of Paris. Known for its extraordinary splendor,
extravagance, and immense size, Versailles was the home of the king,
queen, and all members of the royal family, along with high government
officials and select nobles. On October 5, 1789,
a mob of angry and hungry French women marched on Versailles, bringing
the royal family back to Paris to deal with the food shortage.
