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Struggles with Freedom in Eastern Europe
The nations of Eastern Europe, which were dominated to a large extent by the major powers before World War I, found themselves in a period of unprecedented self-determination between the wars. Notable among this group were the Baltic States—Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania—all of whom had formerly been dominated by Germany to the west and Russia to the east. Once freed, Finland formed close ties with other Scandinavian countries and was able to maintain relative economic and political stability. Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, on the other hand, all struggled with democracy and became ruled by dictatorships. In September 1934, the three states signed a ten-year pact to cooperate in foreign affairs.
Poland, similarly freed from domination, established a democratic government in 1922, but succumbed to a dictatorship due to social and economic distress in 1926. In 1934, a new, conservative constitution was drawn up, granting extraordinary authority to the president, but when he died in 1935, elite politicians in Poland instituted a “non-party” system. The Camp of National Unity (OZN), a mass organization based on the principles of nationalism, social justice, and organization, took control in 1937. All the while, Poland waged a difficult battle to balance the desires of Germany and the Soviet Union. Eventually however, the balance collapsed, and Poland fell prey to both nations in World War II.
Hungarian Struggles
After the disintegration of the Hapsburg Empire, Hungary declared itself independent. The government first came under the control of the liberal National Council, which was then overthrown by communist forces in 1919, who were then overthrown themselves. In January 1920, an elected National Constituent Assembly determined that Hungary would become a monarchy, which, in effect, was a dictatorship run by the landed aristocracy. In 1932, General Gyula Gömbös came to power as prime minister, and while he was not a strong enough ruler to initiate a truly fascist state, but he was still quite powerful, quite conservative, and openly anti-Semitic. Gömbös set the tone for a string of conservative prime ministers who practiced open anti-Semitism, and eventually cooperated with Germany in its efforts at European domination. Due to general economic hardship and a large cession of land mandated by a peace treaty, Hungary floundered economically, and was unstable politically for most of the interwar period.
Czechoslovakian Democracy
Czechoslovakia proved the only nation in Eastern Europe able to function reasonably well as a democracy during the interwar period. On October 18, 1918, Czechoslovakia declared its independence from Hungary and established the National Assembly in Prague. The government attacked economic problems ferociously, undertaking reforms and redistributing land. Despite several rough patches, the parties within the Czechoslovakian government demonstrated marked unity. The depression hit Czechoslovakia hard, exacerbating ethnic tensions, and most notably convincing the nation's 3 million ethnic Germans, most of whom lived near the German border, that they would be best off following the German Nazi Party. Despite efforts to enlist the support of France and the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia was not able to fend off German expansionism, and on September 18, 1938, under the Munich Pact, Britain and France officially recognized German Control of Czechoslovakian Sudetenland.
Democracy and Ethnic Conflict in Eastern Europe
The reorganization of Europe after the Great War had its greatest impact in Eastern Europe. The lands of Eastern Europe had been under the domination of the German, Russian, and Austro-Hungarian governments until after World War I, at which point they became independent. These newly independent nations all tried democracy, but, in a region unaccustomed to governing themselves, the system had many problems. Used to following orders and living a life without political impact, the masses proved to disorganized, misguided, or simply inactive.
The politicians of Eastern Europe were much the same, having been handed their orders from the governments that had dominated them and unused to democratic deliberation. Indecision on many issues led to chaos and inaction on the part of many Eastern governments. This allowed others to usurp and abuse power, forming oppressive, fascistic dictatorships, with surprisingly few in the region objecting to this development. To many, it seemed that fascism was the only solution to the problem of an aimlessly drifting government.
Ethnic Conflict in Czechoslovakia
A major source of distress and chaos in Eastern Europe was the conflict between the different ethnic groups. According to the principle of national self-determination, the redrawn borders of Eastern Europe attempted to grant as many ethnic groups as possible self-government, but these borders were often drawn without regard for the consequences. Czechoslovakia was a prime example of this. Although it was the most stable of the Eastern European states, its society was still wracked by ethnic conflict. In the newly drawn state, only 65 percent of the inhabitants were Czechs or Slovaks, two groups that had bonded together more out of necessity than mutual affection.
The major minorities in Czechoslovakia consisted of 3 million Germans, almost 20 percent of the population, and 700,000 Hungarians. Both groups resented being lumped together with the majority groups and maintained close ties to their original nations. As a result, there was no spirit of cooperation, making effective democracy nearly difficult, and eventually, resistance to German aggression impossible.
