The Far East
With the death of Darius, the Macedonians thought the
war was over. The remote territories had little to offer economically.
As the Iranians had been reluctant to acknowledge a ruler of their
own race, they could be expected to be even more resistant to Alexander's
conquest, so that large garrisons would be required to maintain
power. Alexander, however, wanted to continue pressing east, using
Bessus as an excuse. Bessus was still out stirring trouble, as he
attempted to raise an army to defend the old empire. However, discord
arose among his own faction, and soon Bessus was ousted by Spitamenes,
who gladly surrendered him to Alexander. Bessus was forced to wear
a wooden collar, the mark of a slave, while Spitamenes was praised
by Alexander. Bessus would later be mutilated, having his nose
and ears cut off before being executed.
The capture of Bessus, however, did not mean the end of
the revolt as Alexander had thought. Instead, the leaders of Sogdiana had
hoped that turning Bessus over would gain them immunity; when it
became evident that Alexander still intended to subjugate their
territory, they rose once again. When Alexander continued on, Spitamenes
raised troops who slaughtered the Macedonian garrisons. Alexander
was therefore forced to return to the city of Cyropolis, the center
of the revolt. As he usually dealt with cities that refused to
submit, he razed and massacred Cyropolis.
In the meantime, Spitamenes continued to stir trouble
in other areas, so Alexander sent a small troop, led by Pharnuches,
to take care of the situation. Pharnuches underestimated Spitamenes
considerably. Spitamenes successfully lured Pharnuches to another
territory where Spitamenes obtained further support, leaving the Macedonians
surrounded. It is reported that not a single Macedonian escaped
death in what was perhaps the first–and only–major defeat of Alexander's
career. Though the blame falls largely on Pharnuches and his ineptitude,
Alexander himself failed to appreciate the strength of Spitamenes'
force, and his error in calculation was the ultimate cause of this
defeat.
Spitamenes fled with his troops when Alexander's army
made for their direction, but the fact remained that Spitamenes
controlled most of Sogdiana. Alexander appointed Coenus, one of
his generals, to supervise the rebel's activity while the Macedonians
rested for the winter of 328 B.C. As Alexander and Coenus were
secured more cities, Spitamenes was left without bases and means
of provisioning. He therefore decided to round his troops up to
make one great assault. Unfortunately for Spitamenes, Coenus was
well prepared and defeated the rebels soundly. The Sogdianians
deserted Spitamenes, and he was beheaded. Nevertheless, he is often
remembered as Alexander's most formidable opponent, having won
a major victory over the Macedonians and having harassed them for
over two years–though in a full battle he never could have defeated them.
With the Sogdianian region taken care of, Alexander moved south
to Paraetacene, which was still under the control of four powerful
barons. The first of these, Oxyartes, had established a stronghold
at the top of a steep mountain, and he was fully confident of its impenetrability.
Alexander chose 300 of his best rock-climbers to undertake the
mission, with the promise of generous reward. Although about thirty
fell to their deaths, the remaining 270 startled Oxyartes' followers
and forced surrender without a struggle.
The daughter of Oxyartes, Roxane, was widely considered
the most beautiful woman in Asia, and Alexander took her as his
wife. Most historians agree that he likely did not care for Roxane
much more than he did for any other woman who was not his mother,
but he hoped his gesture would generate goodwill among the barons
of the Far East and cause the campaign to be concluded more smoothly.
Indeed, one baron submitted on Oxyartes' recommendation, and the
other two were defeated soon after.
Alexander's experience in the Far East was a significant
period in his career. He founded a number of cities in the area
in order to maintain his authority. But while the purpose of these
cities was military, they also contributed to the spread of Greek
culture to new lands. Alexander's experience of Asia also changed
him personally. Whether because he gained a respect for Persian
abilities or simply because he had indulged in the region's luxury,
Alexander no longer maintained an absolute belief in Persian inferiority.
He had married a Persian woman and he had supported the authority
of many Persian satraps cooperatively, despite formally conquering
them.
Alexander's new attitude toward Persia alienated many
of the conservative Macedonian nobles, who, like Aristotle and
Philip, still viewed Persians as barbaric. Two men in particular
suffered for their opposition. Cleitus, one of Alexander's old
friends, made the mistake of speaking his mind during a banquet
where most attendants were intoxicated. Although Alexander had suspected
Cleitus of treasonous thoughts, he did not intend to lose his temper
and murder the man in full view of the public, as he did. Afterward, Alexander
was filled with great remorse–would not eat or drink for three
days–cursing himself as a murderer.
Callisthenes, the official historian of the Persian expedition,
was also under suspicion. Like his uncle, Aristotle, Callisthenes
viewed all Persians with contempt and disliked Alexander's change
of attitude. Alexander had recently instituted a new policy requiring
subjects to prostrate themselves before his feet. Though such a
practice was standard for Iranians, it seemed blasphemous to Greeks,
who showed such respect only to the gods. Nevertheless, Alexander's goal
was to emphasize that he was king both of Macedonia and Asia. Callisthenes
failed to comply and refused to prostrate himself, whether purposely
or not. Alexander, noting the light applause that accompanied Callisthenes'
insubordination, realized that an example would have to be made.
Before long, Alexander had an opportunity to indict Callisthenes
in a conspiracy in which one of Callisthenes' students had been
involved–though, as in Philotas's case, the link was extremely
dubious. Callisthenes was executed and immediately achieved martyr
status, particularly among Aristotle's school at Lyceum. It remains
unclear whether Alexander was justly protecting himself from potential
conspirators or unnecessarily removing harmless opponents. In any
case, his severity did contribute to the preservation of his rule.
