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- Sales tax (also known as excise tax): A tax paid on purchases; the buyer pays a percentage of the price of the item as tax
- Luxury tax: A tax levied on the purchase of extremely expensive luxury items
- Property tax: A tax levied on property owners, usually a percentage of the value of the property
User Fees
Governments can also raise money through user fees, the money charged to citizens for doing certain things. Examples include fees for using public parks, fees for obtaining licenses (such as a driver’s or hunting license), or charging tolls for using certain roads. User fees are a popular way to raise revenue because they are not technically taxes, and they only affect those who use the particular government service.
Tax Credits
Governments use tax credits to alleviate the income tax burden for some activities. A tax credit is deducted from the amount of taxes a person owes. A good example is the Earned Income Tax Credit program in the United States. The EITC gives lower-income workers back some of the money they paid in payroll taxes. Tax credits are also known as tax expenditures.
Loopholes
A loophole is a specific provision within a tax law that allows individuals or corporations to reduce the amount they owe in taxes. Politicians put loopholes in tax law in order to reward certain types of behavior (investing in alternate fuel sources, for example). In the United States, the number of loopholes has expanded greatly since the last major tax reform of 1986.
Loopholes and tax credits mean that a person usually does not pay the given tax; he or she usually pays less. The effective tax rate is the percentage of income that one actually pays in taxes.
Example: In the United States, few people pay the basic rate on their income tax. Every taxpayer is allowed a deduction (standard or itemized), and most are allowed to deduct certain exemptions from their taxable income. Other deductions and credits can reduce the tax burden further. In some extreme cases, people making millions of dollars pay very little in tax because of tax loopholes, deductions, and shelters (a catch-all term for anything that reduces the amount of taxable income).
Government Spending and Borrowing
Government spending and borrowing affect the economy. Most governments spend a great deal of money in their annual budgets. How that money is spent affects people in different ways. Some expenditures create jobs, thereby lessening unemployment. Other expenditures subsidize certain industries, as when a government buys a fleet of cars to aid the automotive industry. Governments also spend money on infrastructure (such as building roads) and defense (such as counterterrorism and the military). Other expenditures, such as worker training, can boost the economy too.
Balanced Budgets and Surpluses
When a government spends the same amount of money it takes in, the government has balanced the budget. A surplus arises when a government receives more money than it spends.
The Balanced Budget Amendment
Some fiscal conservatives have attempted to amend the U.S. Constitution to require a balanced federal budget. Many state constitutions mandate a balanced budget, but the federal constitution does not. Attempts to pass a balanced budget amendment have not progressed very far, even though some politicians very much want one.
Deficits and Debt
When a government spends more than it takes in, it runs a deficit. Taxes raise only a limited amount of money, so if governments wish to spend more than they have made, they must borrow the difference. The total of all deficits owed by a government is the national debt (also called the public debt), which must be repaid eventually. Generally, governments tolerate and accept some debt, but too much debt carried for too long causes serious problems.
Example: As of February 2010, the United States had a national debt of over $12 trillion.
Governments most often borrow money by issuing government bonds. When a person buys a bond, the government promises to pay back the purchase price plus interest to the owner. In the United States, bonds are sometimes called T Bonds or T Bills because they are issued by the Treasury Department.
A Crisis of Debt
In 1980s, there was an international debt crisis. A number of developing countries had borrowed heavily in the 1970s because of low interest rates. When rates went up in the 1980s, those countries could no longer borrow money and were forced to start paying back what they owed. The huge debts created massive problems—in some cases, a very large chunk of tax revenue went to pay interest on the debt, which led to more borrowing and more debt.
Government Spending and Inflation
Large-scale government spending can increase inflation. If the government buys a lot of goods, it causes an increase in demand for those goods, which causes prices to rise. Sometimes governments are willing to tolerate some rise in inflation to stimulate the economy, but over time, excessive spending and high inflation can create problems.
Government Borrowing and Interest Rates
Government borrowing sometimes creates problems because it drives up interest rates. Interest, or the price of borrowing money, goes up when there is an increase in demand for borrowing, which is why heavy government borrowing often drives up interest rates. High interest rates, in turn, hurt the ability of citizens and businesses to borrow money. This chain reaction slows the economy.
$ocial $ecurity
As the baby boomers begin to retire in the United States, social security payments will skyrocket, and the social security fund will be depleted. Most analysts agree that by the time today’s college graduates will be getting ready to retire, if not sooner, there will be no money left. In the early twenty-first century, President George W. Bush proposed privatizing social security, so that every person would be responsible for setting aside money to cover his or her retirement rather than having the government do it via paycheck deductions. The proposal lacked the necessary support in Congress, so Bush’s social security plan never took off. No solution has yet been reached.
Keynesian Economics
In the early years of the twentieth century, economist John Maynard Keynes argued that governments should step in to actively help the economy. According to Keynesian economics, government spending during a recession shortens the length of the recession and keeps the recession from becoming severe. Often this process entailed deficit spending, or intentionally spending more money than the government has.
Demand-Side Versus Supply-Side Economics
Keynesian economics is categorized as demand-side economics. It stimulates consumer demand by putting more money into consumers’ hands in order to improve the economy. In contrast, supply-side economics tries to improve the economy by providing big tax cuts to businesses and wealthy individuals (the supply side). These cuts encourage investment, which then creates jobs, so the effect will be felt throughout the economy. Supply-side economics is sometimes called trickle-down economics. Although demand-side economics has worked very successfully in much of the world since World War II, some economists and policymakers favor supply-side economics. Also, a number of recent American presidents, most notably Ronald Reagan, have relied on supply-side economics to pull the economy out of recessions.
