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No Fear Translations of Shakespeare’s plays (along with audio!) and other classic works
Flashcards
Mastery Quizzes
Infographics
Graphic Novels
AP® Test Prep PLUS
AP® Practice & Lessons
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Testimonials from SparkNotes Customers
No Fear provides access to Shakespeare for students who normally couldn’t (or wouldn’t) read his plays. It’s also a very useful tool when trying to explain Shakespeare’s wordplay!
Erika M.
I tutor high school students in a variety of subjects. Having access to the literature translations helps me to stay informed about the various assignments. Your summaries and translations are invaluable.
Kathy B.
Teaching Shakespeare to today's generation can be challenging. No Fear helps a ton with understanding the crux of the text.
Kay H.
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As the term "organic" implies, organic chemistry had its
origins in the study of natural compounds extracted from living organisms.
It was believed that these compounds contained a "vital force" that was
responsible for life processes. This theory of "vitalism" held that
organic compounds were somehow beyond the grasp of experimental science.
Vitalism was disproved when Friederich Wohler accidentally created the
organic compound urea by heating ammonium cyanate, which was classified as
inorganic.
Figure %: Wohler's "synthesis" of urea.
Since then, the definition of organic chemistry has been expanded
to the study of compounds that contain carbon. Carbon is special
for several reasons:
Carbon has a strong tendency to concatenate; that is, to form
long chains of carbon atoms that provide an important skeletal framework on
which to build molecules.
Carbon is tetravalent, forming four bonds with neighboring atoms.
This allows carbon chains to take on
significant branching and provides for a vast range of structural diversity.
Carbon forms strong Π-bonds. The presence of double and triple bonds
expands the number of important bonding motifs available to organic
molecules.
Indeed, almost all molecules of biological importance are built on such
carbon frameworks. However, carbon-containing molecules are useful not
only to biological systems but in industries as diverse as pharmaceutical
medicine, food,
clothing, communications, and heavy industry. The task of organic chemists is
two-fold: to study organic molecules from a theoretical perspective and to learn
new strategies for the synthesis and application of complex molecules in these
industries.
Hydrocarbons
The simplest organic molecules are hydrocarbons, compounds that contain
only carbon and hydrogen. Two broad classes of hydrocarbons are aliphatic
hydrocarbons and aromatic hydrocarbons. Aromatic hydrocarbons contain
benzene-like structures, and we'll see in upcoming chapters that such
compounds exhibit special chemistry. Aliphatic hydrocarbons don't contain
benzene rings and typically consist of carbon chains connected by single,
double, and triple bonds. Aliphatic hydrocarbons that contain only single
bonds are alkanes. Hydrocarbons that contain double bonds are
alkenes and those with triple bonds are alkynes.
Figure %: Classification of hydrocarbons.
We begin our study of organic molecules with alkanes, chains of carbon
atoms held by single bonds. Even simple alkanes exhibit the structural
diversity mentioned previously: an alkane can be unbranched or branched, and it
can also loop back on itself to form a cyclic alkane. Cyclic alkanes
will be considered separately later in this chapter. All acyclic alkanes
(unbranched and branched) have the characteristic molecular formula
CnH(2n + 2), where n is the number of carbon atoms in the chain. gives the molecular formulas and Lewis structure for the unbranched,
or
n-alkanes (n stands for normal). Notice that each
n-alkane differs from the next one in the series by a (-CH2-), or
methylene group.
Figure %: The n-alkanes.
Representing Organic Molecules
As you can see from the structures in the figure above, drawing out full Lewis
structures even for simple organic molecules can be quite tedious. Several
shorthand notations are used by organic chemists to designate molecules
more complex than methane and ethane. A condensed structural formula
omits the single bonds to hydrogens. Sometimes even the carbon-carbon
bonds are omitted. For example, hexane can be drawn using the following
condensed structures.