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Developmental psychology examines age-related changes across the lifespan, influenced by genetic, environmental, and life experience factors.
The field uses two main approaches: chronological (sequential stages from birth to old age) and thematic (focused on recurring questions, like nature versus nurture or stability versus change).
Major themes in developmental psychology include:
Stability versus change: considers if trains remain constant or evolve over time.
Nature versus nurture: explores the influence of biology vs. environment on development.
Continuous versus discontinuous: examines whether development is gradual or occurs in distinct stages.
Cross-sectional studies compare different age groups at one time, which is efficient for studying age-related differences but limited by generational differences (cohort effects).
Longitudinal studies follow the same group over time, revealing individual development patterns, but are time-consuming and costly.
Physical development begins prenatally with genetic and environmental influences (e.g., teratogens, maternal health) affecting fetal development.
Motor skills develop in infancy, progressing from reflexive movements to more controlled and voluntary actions.
Adolescence brings puberty and rapid changes in primary and secondary sex characteristics, with some psychological and social implications for early/late maturation.
Certain stages, like early childhood, are sensitive to language, socialization, and cognitive stimulation, impacting later abilities. These are known as critical periods.
Sex (biological) and gender (socially-constructed roles) influence identity, behavior, and social expectations.
Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development proposes cognitive stages from sensorimotor to formal operational, highlighting changes in logical and abstract thinking as children grow.
Lev Vygotsky’s theory of sociocultural development emphasizes sociocultural learning, where social interactions and tools like language are central to cognitive development.
Lawrence Kohlberg defined stages of moral development in his theory of moral development, focusing on evolving reasoning behind right and wrong.
Crystallized intelligence (knowledge-based) generally remains stable or improves with age, while fluid intelligence (problem-solving ability) may decline.
Dementia and other cognitive disorders can impact daily functioning, with neuroplasticity and lifestyle choices helping to slow cognitive decline.
Language enables meaningful communication by using symbols, which can be sounds, gestures, or written characters, and follows rules that create structure and meaning.
Language shapes thoughts and perceptions through concepts like linguistic relativity, impacting how individuals frame and understand experiences.
For a system to qualify as a language, it must be symbolic, generative, meaningful, and rule-governed, allowing users to create and interpret infinite possible messages.
Phonemes, the smallest units of sound, and morphemes, the smallest units of meaning, are building blocks that enable word and sentence construction.
Semantics governs word meanings and sentence interpretation, ensuring comprehension by providing context-based distinctions.
Syntax and grammar set the structural rules of language, guiding how words and morphemes combine to form coherent and meaningful sentences.
Children develop language through predictable stages, starting with nonverbal gestures and progressing to cooing, babbling, first words, two-word phrases, and telegraphic speech.
Language errors like overgeneralization (e.g., “goed” for “went”) reflect rule application during language acquisition, showing active engagement with language structure.
Social-emotional development throughout life is influenced by family, peer relationships, cultural expectations, and individual experiences, are used in shaping behavior, self-concept, and mental health.
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory identifies layers (microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem) influencing social development across contexts.
Parenting styles – authoritarian, authoritative, permissive – impact social and emotional growth, each offering different levels of support and structure based on responsiveness and demands.
Attachment styles, such as secure, avoidant, anxious, and disorganized, affect social interactions and emotional health, influenced by early caregiver relationships and temperament.
Adolescents’ peer relationships play key roles in identity formation, with concepts like imaginary audience and personal fable highlighting their evolving self-concept.
Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development propose that identity formation continues across the lifespan, each stage presenting a specific social challenge.
Identity development during adolescence involves exploration and commitment, with Marcia’s four identity statuses – achievement, diffusion, foreclosure, and moratorium – illustrating varying degrees of identity progress.
Classical conditioning, based on Pavlov’s work, explains learning through associations between stimuli and responses, with applications in conditioning emotional responses and therapeutic techniques.
Operant conditioning, proposed by Skinner, describes learning through reinforcement and punishment, emphasizing how consequences influence voluntary behavior.
Reinforcement schedules (continuous, fixed, and variable intervals and ratios) affect response patterns, with variable schedules promoting stronger, more consistent behavior.
Social learning theory suggests that learning can occur through observation rather than direct personal experience, such as in vicarious conditioning or modeling.
Insight learning occurs when a solution to a problem appears suddenly in an individual’s mind.
Latent learning is learning that occurs without any obvious reinforcement or immediate demonstration.
