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A third major sociological framework is conflict theory. Unlike structural functionalism, which views society as a stable system where deviance can serve important functions, conflict theory interprets society as a constant struggle for power between competing groups. According to this perspective, deviance arises from inequalities between those with power and those without power. Conflict theory was developed by Karl Marx, who argued that industrialized societies are divided into two main groups: the capitalist class, which controls wealth and resources, and the working class, which provides labor.
The capitalist class, or elite, consists of those in positions of wealth and power who own the means of production or control access to the means of production. The working class consists of relatively powerless individuals who sell their labor to the capitalist class. It is advantageous to the elite to keep the working class in a relatively disadvantaged position so that they can maintain the status quo and their own privileged positions.
Conflict Theory and Crime
Conflict theorists believe that the broad division of people into these two categories is inherently unequal. They cite the criminal justice system to support their claim. The capitalist class passes laws designed to benefit themselves. These same laws are detrimental to the working class. Both groups commit acts of deviance, but the system the capitalists created defines deviance differently for each group. The criminal justice system judges and punishes each group differently. In addition, the elite can often afford expensive lawyers and are sometimes on a first-name basis with the individuals in charge of making and enforcing laws. Members of the working class generally do not have these advantages.
Deviance and Power
The unequal treatment of different social classes within the criminal justice system is not coincidental. According to conflict theorists, those in power define deviance in ways that protect their own interests while disproportionately punishing the less powerful. Laws are created and enforced by the elite, who have the ability to shape societal norms in ways that benefit them.
Conflict theorist Alexander Liazos highlights this disparity, pointing out that the people we commonly label as deviant are also relatively powerless. According to Liazos, a homeless person living in the street is more likely to be labeled deviant than an executive who embezzles funds from the company he or she runs.
Because the people in positions of power make the laws of any given society, they create laws to benefit themselves. According to the conflict view of deviance, when rich and powerful people are accused of wrongdoing, they have the means to hire lawyers, accountants, and other people who can help them avoid being labeled as deviant. Lastly, members of a society generally believe that laws are inherently fair, which can draw attention away from the possibility that these laws might be unfairly applied or that a law itself might not be good or just.
White-Collar Crimes
One of the clearest examples of how power influences deviance is white-collar crime. Unlike street crime, which is often committed by the working class and is heavily prosecuted, white-collar crime is carried out by those in positions of power. Despite its significant financial and social impact, it is often overlooked or lightly punished compared to crimes committed by lower-class individuals.
Conflict theorists argue that the types of crimes people commit—and the consequences they face—are influenced by their social class.The working class is more likely to engage in street crime, such as robbery, assault, or murder, which is more visible and easier to prosecute. In contrast, members of the elite are less likely to commit acts of violence but more likely to engage in white-collar crime, a category of nonviolent crime committed by the capitalist class during the course of their occupations.
Example: White-collar criminal acts include embezzlement, insider stock trading, price fixing, and breaking regulatory laws.
White-collar criminals are difficult to catch and prosecute for two main reasons: White-collar crime is difficult to identify. It leaves little physical evidence and no easily identifiable victim. In order to detect white-collar crime, authorities must have knowledge of high finance to discover that embezzlement, for example, has taken place. White-collar criminals are sometimes able to use their power and influence to avoid prosecution. Because of their social and economic clout, white-collar criminals rarely face criminal prosecution. When prosecuted, they are much less likely than members of the working class to receive a prison sentence. They are more likely to pay a fine as punishment for their crime.
Generally, white-collar crimes are not harmful or dangerous to the general public. But there are exceptions. In 2001, consumer advocates accused the Ford Motor Corporation of equipping some of their vehicles with faulty tires, made by Bridgestone/Firestone. Ford had already recalled the tires from vehicles sold in other countries but made no such recall on tires on those sold in the United States. Over 200 people died and more than 800 were injured in automobile accidents allegedly caused by the defective tires.
Crime
While white-collar crime highlights the role of power in shaping definitions of deviance, crime itself takes many forms. To fully understand crime from a sociological perspective, we must examine its different categories, causes, and patterns.
Crime, or the violation of a written law, is a specific kind of deviance. What constitutes a crime varies from society to society. In our society, sociologists have identified three general categories of crime: crimes against the person, crimes against property, and victimless crimes.
Crimes against the person: These are crimes in which an act of violence is either threatened or perpetrated against a person. A mugging is an example of a crime against the person.
Crimes against property: These are crimes that involve the theft of property or certain forms of damage against the property of another. Arson is an example of a property crime.
Victimless crimes: These are crimes in which laws are violated, but there is no identifiable victim. Prostitution is often classified as a victimless crime.
Profile of a Criminal
Understanding crime sociologically involves not only examining different types of crime but also identifying patterns in who commits them. Sociologists analyze crime statistics to uncover trends in criminal behavior, helping explain why certain groups are more likely to engage in deviance. Identifying a criminal profile can help sociologists understand the causes of crime and other deviance. Sociologists use the categories of age, gender, social class, and race and ethnicity to create this profile.
Age: Young people, roughly between the mid-teens and early twenties, commit almost 40 percent of all crimes. The likelihood to commit crime, particularly violent crime, decreases as one ages.
Gender: Men are arrested for crimes far more often than women. Men are arrested for approximately 70 percent of all property crimes and 80 percent of all violent crimes. Several theories, including the following, attempt to explain this situation: In all known societies, men are allowed more behavioral freedom than women are. More freedom means more opportunity to engage in deviant acts. Traditionally, police have been less willing to define a woman as a criminal, and the court system has been less likely to convict a woman and sentence her to jail or prison. The gap between the number of arrests for men and the number of arrests for women is narrowing, however. This could be due to greater gender equality or, as some believe, to the rising number of women who commit crimes.
Social Class: Street crime, particularly violent crime, is more prevalent in poor, inner-city neighborhoods than in affluent communities. Violent crime in inner-city neighborhoods tends to be committed by the same group of seasoned criminals. Their victims are most often the law-abiding inhabitants of those neighborhoods. White-collar crime tends to occur in more affluent communities.
Race and Ethnicity: African Americans represent approximately 12 percent of the population in the United States and comprise 30 percent of property-crime arrests and 38 percent of violent-crime arrests. White people represent 66 percent of the arrests for property crimes and 60 percent of the arrests for violent crimes.
