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Power and privilege shape how societies treat people based on their gender and sexual identity. While progress has been made toward equality, discrimination still exists within institutions, social norms, and daily interactions. From legal restrictions and workplace bias to cultural expectations and interpersonal prejudice, sexism, heterosexism, and misogyny reinforce social hierarchies and limit opportunities.
Sexism
Sexism refers to prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination based on a person’s sex or gender. In most societies, sexism historically privileges men while disadvantaging women and gender minorities. Patriarchal structures—systems in which men hold disproportionate power in politics, business, education, and religion—reinforce this inequality. Various forms of sexism exist:
Institutional Sexism: Policies or practices within institutions that systematically disadvantage certain genders. For example, women were once banned from voting, owning property, or participating in certain professions.
Interpersonal Sexism: One-on-one discrimination based on sex and/or gender in social interactions. For example, a hiring manager assumes that a woman wouldn’t be committed to her job because of potential caregiving responsibilities.
Benevolent Sexism: Stereotypes that appear positive but reinforce gender inequality. For example, assuming women are naturally better caregivers reinforces expectations that women take on more of the unpaid domestic labor.
Sexism exists across all gender identities but most severely impacts women and gender-nonconforming individuals. It often overlaps with racism, classism, and other social inequalities, leading to intersectional discrimination.
Heterosexism
Heterosexism is the belief or system of attitudes that assumes heterosexuality is the norm and superior to other sexual orientations. This assumption influences laws, social policies, and cultural norms, often marginalizing LGBTQ+ individuals and reinforcing heteronormativity—the idea that being straight is the default or “natural” state. Examples of heterosexism in society include:
Legal Barriers: Many countries banned same-sex relationships and denied LGBTQ+ individuals legal rights such as marriage and adoption.
Cultural Representation: Mainstream media has traditionally prioritized heterosexual relationships, often portraying LGBTQ+ identities as unusual or abnormal.
Workplace and Social Discrimination: LGBTQ+ individuals may face job discrimination, social stigma, and violence in societies where heterosexism is dominant.
Heterosexism does not always take the form of overt discrimination—it can also appear subtly, such as assuming that everyone is straight or treating LGBTQ+ relationships as secondary or less legitimate.
Misogyny
Misogyny is hatred, contempt, or discrimination against women, which manifests through social norms, cultural practices, institutional policies, and interpersonal behaviors. Misogyny often reinforces patriarchal power structures by devaluing women’s contributions, limiting their rights, and justifying violence or control over their bodies and lives. Misogyny can be both overt (e.g., harassment or discrimination) or subtle (e.g., dismissing women’s concerns in medical settings). Examples of misogyny in society include:
Cultural Narratives: Stereotypes that depict women as overly emotional, irrational, or less capable of leadership.
Gender-Based Violence: Many cultures tolerate or minimize violence against women, such as domestic violence and sexual harassment.
Double Standards: Women in positions of power are often judged more harshly than men for behavior such as assertiveness, ambition, or decision-making.
