payment page
Sociology is the systematic and scientific study of human social life. Sociologists study people as they form groups and interact with one another.
The sociological perspective is a way of looking at the world through the lens of social structures and interactions. It allows individuals to see beyond their personal experiences and consider the broader social context that influences behavior, beliefs, and outcomes. This perspective helps sociologists understand the relationship between individuals and society as a whole.
The sociological imagination, introduced by American sociologist C. Wright Mills, is the ability to connect personal experiences to larger public issues and historical forces. By linking personal troubles to public issues, the sociological imagination empowers people to better understand their place in the world and how social forces shape their lives.
The sociological perspective emphasizes patterns of behavior and the ways social structures influence individual and group actions. It also encourages focusing on group behavior and social institutions rather than just individuals as it challenges common-sense assumptions.
Auguste Comte (1798–1857), widely considered the “father of sociology,” became interested in studying society because of the changes that took place as a result of the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution. Comte felt that an entirely new science was needed since the social sciences that existed at the time, including political science and history, couldn’t adequately explain the chaos and upheaval he saw around him. He called this new science sociology, which comes from the root word socius, a Latin word that means “companion” or “being with others.”
In the United States, sociology was first taught as an academic discipline at the University of Kansas in 1890, at the University of Chicago in 1892, and at Atlanta University in 1897. Over time, it spread to other universities in North America.
Sociologists use a variety of theoretical perspectives to make sense of the world. These perspectives, or theories, provide a framework for understanding observations on society and its dynamics. There are three major foundational theories in sociology.
Functionalism, also known as structural functionalism, specifically focuses on the structures within society and the functions they perform. views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote stability and social order. Functionalism is rooted in the ideas of early sociologists like Émile Durkheim and later expanded into structural functionalism by theorists like Talcott Parsons and Robert K. Merton, emphasizes how various institutions—such as family, education, and religion—contribute to the functioning of society as a whole.
The key difference between functionalism and structural functionalism is in their emphasis. Functionalism is a broad perspective that examines how different parts of society contribute to its overall stability and functioning. Structural functionalism, a more specific development of this theory, focuses explicitly on the societal structures like family or education and their functions in maintaining equilibrium.
Durkheim introduced the concept of the collective conscience, which refers to shared norms, values, and beliefs that bind individuals together and create social cohesion. Parsons further developed this perspective by analyzing how different social institutions interact to maintain equilibrium. Merton added the idea of manifest functions (intended outcomes) and latent functions (unintended consequences), offering a more nuanced understanding of societal roles.
Another key theoretical perspective is conflict theory, which focuses on the struggle for power and resources within society. It is rooted in Karl Marx's work and highlights how inequality and competition shape social structures. Conflict theorists argue that society is divided into groups with differing interests, often along the lines of class, race, gender, or other forms of inequality.
Symbolic interactionism, a third key theoretical perspective, examines society at a micro level, focusing on how individuals create and interpret meaning through social interactions. Influenced by theorists like George Herbert Mead and Erving Goffman, this perspective emphasizes the importance of symbols—such as language, gestures, and objects—in shaping human behavior and social reality.
Sociology also draws on other perspectives to analyze social life in addition to these major theories. Feminist theory explores how gender inequality shapes society and emphasizes the need to understand and address patriarchy and sexism. Postmodernism challenges grand narratives and universal truths, focusing on the fragmented, diverse nature of contemporary society.
Sociologists often use multiple perspectives in their research, recognizing that no single theory can fully explain the complexities of human behavior and social structures.
While sociological perspectives provide broad theoretical frameworks for understanding society, all perspectives rely on a group of seven key concepts that help sociologists analyze and understand the complexities of human societies.
Social structure is the organized patterns of relationships and institutions that shape society and include family, education systems, and government institutions. They provide a framework for individuals and groups to interact, defining roles, norms, and expectations.
Culture refers to the shared beliefs, values, norms, and practices of a group or society. It includes both material culture (physical objects like clothing or technology) and non-material culture (intangible elements like language, customs, and symbols). Sociologists study how cultures evolve, are transmitted across generations, and interact in multicultural societies.
Socialization is the process through which individuals learn the norms, values, and behaviors required to participate in their society. Agents of socialization, such as family, peers, schools, and media, play a crucial role in shaping an individual’s identity and social skills. It begins in childhood and continues throughout life as people encounter new social contexts and roles.
Social roles are the expectations associated with a particular status or position in society. Role conflict can occur when the demands of different roles clash, such as balancing work and family responsibilities. Sociologists study how individuals manage and adapt to their roles in various social contexts.
Social institutions are established systems and structures that meet societal needs and organize behavior. Examples include the family, education, religion, economy, and government. Each institution (which includes the family, education, religion, economy, and government) has specific functions that contribute to the stability and continuity of society. Sociologists examine how institutions interact, evolve, and sometimes reinforce social inequalities.
Power refers to the ability of individuals or groups to achieve their goals, often despite resistance. Inequality arises when access to resources, opportunities, and privileges is unevenly distributed among social groups. Sociologists analyze power dynamics and inequality based on factors like class, race, gender, and age.
Social change involves significant shifts in the structure, culture, or dynamics of a society over time. Changes can result from technological advancements, social movements, economic developments, or environmental factors. Sociologists study the causes, processes, and consequences of social change, exploring how societies adapt to new challenges and opportunities.
The teaching of sociology evolved differently depending on where it was taught and who was teaching it with qualitative sociology and quantitative sociology emerging as the two major types. Today, most schools use both qualitative and quantitative methods of inquiry, and one method is not necessarily better than the other.
At the University of Chicago, Albion Small (1854–1926) developed qualitative sociology, which is concerned mainly with trying to obtain an accurate picture of a group and how it operates in the world. Small and his followers were particularly interested in understanding how immigration was affecting the city and its residents. They began conducting qualitative studies that involved personal interviews and observations of ethnic rituals and ceremonies. Today, qualitative sociology emphasizes understanding individuals’ experiences by examining their books, television programs, interactions, and ceremonies, among other elements.
Sociology at Harvard University developed differently. Like the University of Chicago sociologists, Harvard sociologists wanted to understand the immigrant experience, but they went about their research in a quantitative way. Quantitative sociology relies on statistical analysis to understand experiences and trends. While some researchers at Harvard did talk to people and observe them, many preferred to remain within the confines of the university and quantify their data to render it suitable for statistical manipulation.
Sociology is part of a larger family of social sciences that all seek to understand human behavior and society. As a multidisciplinary field, sociology draws from a variety of other social sciences to examine social life from multiple angles.
Anthropology concerns individual cultures in a society, rather than the society as a whole. Historically, it focuses on what might be termed “primitive” cultures, such as the Yanomamo people of the South American jungle, who live much the same way they did hundreds of years ago. Anthropologists place special emphasis on language, kinship patterns, and cultural artifacts.
Political Science concerns the governments of various societies. It considers what kind of government a society has, how it formed, and how individuals attain positions of power within a particular government. Political science also concerns the relation of people in a society to whatever form of government they have.
Psychology takes the individual out of his or her social circumstances and examines the mental processes that occur within that person. Psychologists study the human brain and how it functions, considering issues such as memory, dreams, learning, and perception.
Economics focuses on the production and distribution of society’s goods and services. Economists study why a society chooses to produce what it does, how money is exchanged, and how people interact and cooperate to produce goods.
Because sociology is such a broad and multidisciplinary field, people with sociological training pursue careers in many different areas. Some focus on research and policy, while others work directly with communities to address social challenges. There are several fields where sociologists frequently apply their knowledge and skills.
Some people pursue degrees in sociology because they want to change society for the better. They study problems such as poverty, prejudice, and world hunger and attempt to find solutions. Jobs in the social welfare field that relate to these kinds of interests include social and child welfare workers and clergy.
Many sociologists focus their research on understanding the roots of criminal and deviant behavior. Sociologists who focus on crime and deviance may conduct studies of juvenile delinquents, female criminals, or other subgroups of offenders. A background in this type of sociology prepares people for careers in law enforcement, prison administration, and as attornies.
An understanding of changing demographics and culture is essential for keeping members of a society healthy. Some sociologists apply their knowledge to the field of healthcare. They might take jobs as doctors, psychiatrists, or marriage and family counselor.
Maintaining good relations with other societies is always important. Sociologists who specialize in international relations must understand the intricacies of how their society interacts with others. Interest in international relations and diplomacy might lead to such jobs as diplomats, in public relations, or as goverment communications represenatives.
Many people study sociology because they want to develop more effective ways to educate society’s youth or because they want to continue learning and teaching about sociology itself. Such people might hold the following types of jobs in education as K-12 teachers, college instructors, or educational policy makers.
It’s important to note the difference between sociology and social work. Social work is an applied science since it is designed to solve a specific problem in a particular setting. It takes the principles found in sociology and applies them to a particular issue. For example, current sociological research indicates that men are more likely than women to commit suicide. A social worker might take that knowledge and apply it to the real world by tailoring suicide-prevention programs to focus on the needs of males.
