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The three major sociological perspectives—functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism—offer different frameworks for analyzing and understanding the body, health, and illness. These perspectives help explain how healthcare systems function, why health disparities exist, and how cultural beliefs shape medical practices.
The functionalist perspective views the body, health, and illness in terms of how they contribute to the stability and functioning of society. Health is viewed as a key component of a well-functioning society, and illness is seen as a dysfunction that must be addressed by healthcare institutions.
Functionalism often compares society to a living organism, where different institutions (such as family, education, and healthcare) work together to keep the system functioning smoothly. The human body itself is seen as a system in which all parts must work properly to maintain balance.
The Sick Role
Sociologist Talcott Parsons introduced the concept of the sick role, which explains the expectations placed on those who are sick. In functionalist theory, illness is seen as a form of temporary deviance because it disrupts a person’s ability to fulfill their normal roles in society (e.g., working, parenting, or contributing to the economy). To maintain social standing and stability, Parsons argued that being sick comes with both rights and obligations.
Rights of the Sick Role
- The sick person is temporarily excused from their usual responsibilities (e.g., not expected to work or go to school).
- The sick person is not held responsible for their illness (i.e., they are not blamed for being sick)
Obligations of the Sick Role
- The sick person is expected to seek medical help and make an effort to recover.
- The sick person must comply with medical advice and not take advantage of their exempt status.
Chronic illnesses and disabilities challenge this model since they do not always allow for full recovery, leading to shifts in societal expectations and support systems.
The Role of Healthcare Institutions
According to the functionalist perspective, healthcare institutions exist to restore order by diagnosing and treating illness, ensuring that individuals can return to their normal roles. These institutions ensure that sickness does not become a long-term disruption to the workforce, family structures, or other important societal functions.
Doctors, nurses, and medical professionals act as gatekeepers, determining who qualifies as legitimately sick and in need of treatment. This process, known as legitimization, refers to how an illness is socially recognized as real and deserving of medical attention. Healthcare professionals play a key role in this process by providing diagnoses, recommending treatments, and granting access to medical resources. However, not all conditions are easily legitimized—invisible illnesses, mental health disorders, and chronic pain conditions may face greater scrutiny, requiring patients to prove the legitimacy of their symptoms. Among the group of illnesses that are not easily legitimized are contested illnesses—medical conditions whose legitimacy is questioned by medical professionals, the public, or institutions due to unclear biological causes, lack of definitive diagnostic tests, or social stigma (e.g., chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, or long COVID).
Criticisms of the Functionalist Perspective
While functionalism highlights the importance of healthcare in maintaining social stability, it has been criticized for overlooking social inequalities in health. The perspective assumes that healthcare systems function efficiently for all members of society, but in reality, access to medical care is often unequal, with lower-income individuals facing greater barriers to treatment. Functionalism also tends to focus on how illness affects society as a whole rather than considering the personal experiences of individuals navigating health challenges.
