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The symbolic interactionist perspective views the body, health, and illness as socially constructed experiences shaped by individual interactions, cultural meanings, and social expectations. Unlike the functionalist and conflict perspectives, which focus on large-scale structures, symbolic interactionism examines how people define and interpret health, how they experience illness, and how medical professionals interact with patients.
Health and Illness as Social Constructions
From the symbolic interactionist perspective, what is considered disease, how symptoms are perceived, and how people respond to illness are all influenced by cultural and social contexts.
Some conditions, such as depression, ADHD, and chronic pain, may be taken seriously in one society but dismissed or stigmatized in another. Similarly, new medical conditions emerge over time. For example, long COVID was not recognized as an illness until enough people reported persistent symptoms.
Furthermore, some illnesses carry social stigma, while others elicit sympathy. For example, lung cancer patients who smoke may be blamed for their illness, whereas someone with a genetic condition like cystic fibrosis may be viewed as more “deserving” of care.
Doctor-Patient Interactions
Symbolic interactionists examine how doctor-patient interactions shape people’s understanding of their bodies and illnesses. The way doctors and patients communicate can reinforce or challenge power dynamics in healthcare. This can manifest in multiple ways:
The Role of Medical Authority: Medical professionals hold significant authority in healthcare institutions, shaping both individual patient experiences and broader health policies. Doctors, nurses, and other healthcare workers are expected to provide ethical, evidence-based care, but their interactions with patients are also influenced by social factors such as class, race, and gender. Doctors often have social power over patients due to their expertise and the expectation that they “know best.” This can create medical paternalism, where doctors make decisions for patients rather than involving them in the process.
Labeling and Diagnosis: Receiving a diagnosis changes a person’s self-identity and how others interact with them. Being labeled as “sick” can lead to changes in social roles, self-perception, and interactions with others.
Negotiating Illness Identity: Patients may resist or embrace medical labels. Someone diagnosed with a chronic illness might struggle with whether to disclose it, fearing stigma or different treatment from others.
In the past, medical professionals held unquestioned authority, but modern healthcare emphasizes patient-centered care, where individuals are encouraged to participate in decisions about their treatment.
Stigma
Sociologist Erving Goffman introduced the concept of stigma, which refers to a socially discrediting attribute that changes how a person is seen by society, often leading to prejudice, discrimination, or exclusion. Many illnesses, especially those that affect appearance, behavior, or social functioning, carry stigmas.
Mental illness: People with conditions like schizophrenia or depression may be treated differently in the workplace, schools, and social settings, often facing discrimination or skepticism.
HIV/AIDS: In the early days of the AIDS crisis, those affected were often blamed or ostracized due to associations with specific social groups.
Disability and visibility: People with visible disabilities may experience social awkwardness, over-sympathy, or discrimination, while those with invisible illnesses—medical conditions that are not outwardly visible but still impact daily life (e.g., mental health disorders, autoimmune diseases)—are often left feeling that they have to “prove” their condition to others.
Symbolic Meanings of the Body
The way people interpret and present their bodies is socially constructed. Symbolic interactionists study how the body is used to communicate meaning and personal expression, which is constructed and interpreted through social interactions. Body image and self-perception are influenced by cultural messages about attractiveness, aging, and fitness, as well as by everyday social interactions. Individuals develop an understanding of their own bodies based on how others respond to their appearance, whether through compliments, criticism, or media portrayals of the “ideal” body. These social influences can lead people to internalize beauty norms and modify their behaviors, sometimes resulting in efforts to conform or resist societal expectations.
The body also functions as a status symbol, with certain physical appearances signifying privilege, social class, and adherence to cultural ideals. In many societies, maintaining a fit, youthful, and well-groomed appearance is associated with success, while deviations from these norms can lead to stigma or social exclusion.
Criticisms of the Symbolic Interactionist Perspective
A major criticism of symbolic interactionism is that it focuses on individual interactions and neglects broader structural issues that shape health outcomes. While this perspective helps explain how people experience illness on a personal level, it does not fully address broader systemic healthcare inequalities or policy-driven health disparities. Another limitation is that the perspective does not fully take into consideration the practical realities of illness. While it is true that social meanings influence how people perceive and experience illness, many health conditions exist regardless of social interpretation. Critics argue that symbolic interactionism places too much emphasis on social perceptions of illness rather than acknowledging the direct impact of medical and scientific advancements on health.
