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Hadrian’s Territorial Policy
Following Trajan’s death, the Praetorian Prefect Plotina stepped forward to attest that Trajan had adopted Hadrian as successor. Hadrian, from the same town as Trajan had the appropriate aristocratic background, had served in both government and the military, and had governed two provinces. In 117 CE, he was in Syria, but feeling himself insecure, Hadrian gave a double donative, or accension gift, to his legions.
During his reign, he reversed many of Trajan's policies in the realm of military expansion. He negotiated with the Sarmatian tribes of the Danube, instead of conquering them, and withdrew Roman troops from northern Mesopotamia. Thus, Parthia once again controlled the land east of the Euphrates. Hadrian also wanted out of Dacia, but since it had begun the process of Romanization, he abandoned the idea of withdrawing.
Now at peace with his neighbors, Hadrian went on a tour of the Empire. From 120-123 CE, he visited the western and central provinces, and then the East from 123-125 CE. In 127 CE, he toured Italy, and then went East again, visiting its great Hellenistic cities, temples, and historical markers. He went without a large retinue and with little fuss, which impressed the provincials, who had been accustomed to not seeing emperors unless they were passing through on their way to war.
Rome Under Hadrian
Even with all his travels, Hadrian still worked hard as an administrator. He spent much time and money on the army, inspecting it, training it, and personally spending time with his soldiers. He also built Hadrian’s Wall in Britain, an architectural marvel that spanned 73 miles, dotted by towers and forts. It protected Roman holdings in southern Britain from tribes in the north. In the Danube region, he founded new towns, and in eastern Greek cities, initiated a civic building project, improving aqueducts, roads, and basilicae. He also devoted much of his time to receiving petitions from the provinces, solidifying his cosmopolitan view of the Roman Empire—development of the provinces would weld the Empire together better.
Up until Hadrian, senators had come mostly from Italy, but under his rule, appointees would come from the coast of Gaul, Iberia, and Greece. All this was accompanied by an increase in the size of the civil service and equestrian order. Furthermore, to delegate administrative responsibility and relieve Italian townspeople from the need to travel to Rome for court cases, Hadrian divided peninsular Italy into four judicial circuits. However, this was highly unpopular, as it diminished both the Senate’s power and Italy’s status.
Hadrian’s Difficulties and Legacy
The only major disturbance during Hadrian's reign was again related to Jewish unrest. When the emperor visited Judea in 130 CE, he found Jerusalem in ruins. His idea was to rebuild it as Aelia Capitolina—without Jews—with a new temple to Jupiter on the site of the old Jewish Temple. These plans led to an organized revolt under the Jewish leader Simon bar Kokhba. To suppress the fierce rebellion, Hadrian brought in the British general Sextus Julius Severus. By 135 CE, the revolt was over, and Aelia Capitolina was built. No Jews were allowed in Judea, though the prohibition was impossible to enforce fully.
Hadrian died in 138 CE without an heir. He had executed his two successor candidates, fearing conspiracies. This fear was not without its merit; early in his reign, two generals dissatisfied with his imperial policies had conspired against him. Overall, Hadrian was hated by the Roman elite at his demise, due to a lack of conquests, the increasingly intrusive civil service, and suggestions of Italy's diminishing importance within the Empire. In contrast, his successor, Antoninus Pius of southern Gaul, was well liked. He agreed to abolish Hadrian's four-way administrative division of Italy and ruled over an uneventful Rome for 23 years (138-161 CE). There was peace, good government, financial savings, and the promise of a great successor in Marcus Aurelius. If peace was the sole measure, it was the height of the Roman Empire.
