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The War in the Pacific
Japan, which had been at war with China since 1937, had declared openly its intent to take over as much of eastern Asia as it could. It also had designs on Soviet territory. If Germany, which the Japanese government saw as a potential ally, would attack Russia from the west, Japanese military leaders felt that they stood a good chance of seizing Soviet-controlled territory in the east. The signing of the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact in 1939 therefore caused a huge scandal in Japan, as it directly undermined Japan’s plans. On July, 1941, Japanese troops entered and occupied French Indochina (present-day Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia). Japan justified the move as necessary in order to deny resources to the Chinese resistance, but both the United States and Britain saw this move as a clear indication of Japan’s intention to continue its expansion throughout the Pacific Rim.
Fearing U.S. interference with its plans in the Pacific, Japan sought to pre-emptively cripple and sideline the U.S. Navy through a surprise attack on the Pacific Fleet. Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on December 7, 1941, destroyed five battleships, put three more out of commission, sank or seriously damaged at least 11 other warships, and destroyed nearly 200 American aircraft. However, none of the U.S. Navy’s aircraft carriers were in port at the time. On the same day, Japan also attacked British interests in Malaya and Hong Kong. The next day, the United States and Britain declared war on Japan. Three days later, Germany declared war on the United States. Thus, the United States was now at war with both Japan and Germany and able to enter fully into its alliance with Britain.
The Japanese Onslaught
In the coming months, the Japanese navy achieved a series of victories over the Western Allies. On February 15, 1942, Japanese forces took Singapore, in a humiliating defeat for Britain. On March 9, after a series of extended sea battles, the Dutch colony of Java surrendered. On April 9, the U.S.-held Philippines fell to Japan. Meanwhile, however, the U.S. Navy had been rebuilding. American and Allied naval forces met Japanese forces in the Battle of the Coral Sea, which was fought entirely by means of carrier-based aircraft, without any ships exchanging shots. The Allies suffered heavy losses but prevented Japan from taking Port Moresby, New Guinea, which would have provided the Japanese with a base from which to launch an attack on Australia. Key to the Allied success was the fact that U.S. intelligence had managed to decipher coded Japanese transmissions. This was first time in the war that a Japanese invasion force failed to achieve its main objective.
Turning Point at Midway
Following the Battle of the Coral Sea, Japanese strategists knew that the threat from U.S. aircraft carriers has to be eliminated. Admiral Yamamoto Isoroku, who had also planned the Pearl Harbor attack, drew up plans for a massive assault on the Pacific island of Midway and a second, smaller attack on the Aleutian Islands of Alaska with the intent of drawing part of the U.S. Navy away from Midway. Again, however, U.S. intelligence intercepted Japanese coded transmissions. Knowing where the main attack would take place, the United States sent its entire Pacific Fleet to Midway. The Battle of Midway took place on a single day, June 3, 1942. The United States lost one aircraft carrier, one destroyer, nearly 150 airplanes, and just over 300 men. The Japanese toll was far worse: four aircraft carriers, along with more than 230 airplanes and more than 2,000 men.
Japan’s losses at Coral Sea and Midway forced it to shift into a defensive mode. Never again would Australia or the U.S. mainland face a serious danger from Japanese attack. Although the war in the Pacific was far from over, for the rest of the war, Japan’s struggle would remain a fight to maintain the territory it had already conquered, rather than an aggressive campaign for further expansion. Eventually, Japan would gradually lose all of these earlier gains.
Events
1937
Japan goes to war with China
July 1939
Roosevelt announces that Treaty of Commerce and Navigation will not be renewed
July 2, 1940
U.S. Congress passes Export Control Act
August
Japan declares greater East Asia co-prosperity sphere
September 27
Japan signs Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy
January 1941
Yamamoto prepares plan for attack on Pearl Harbor
July
Japanese troops occupy Indochina
October
Hirohito gives general approval for Pearl Harbor attack
November 8
Hirohito approves formal battle plan for attack in December
November 26
Japanese attack fleet sets sail from Japan
December 7
Japan launches surprise attack on Pearl Harbor
December 8
United States and Britain declare war on Japan
March 8, 1942
Japan takes Rangoon, Burma
July
Japan occupies Guadalcanal
August 7
Allies launch offensive on Guadalcanal
November
Allies launch offensive in New Guinea
Key People
Franklin D. Roosevelt
32nd U.S. president; implemented economic penalties that angered Japan; requested war declaration after Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor in December 1941
Hirohito
Japanese emperor; approved Pearl Harbor attack plan
Yamamoto Isoroku
Japanese admiral who orchestrated attacks on both Pearl Harbor and Midway
