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Marcus Aurelius’s Parthian War
Marcus Aurelius became Emperor at a time of relative peace and prosperity for Rome. Though native to Rome, his family was of Iberian (Spanish) origin. Aurelius himself was given to deep philosophical thought and subscribed to Stoicism, a philosophy that claimed knowledge was the key to virtue. With his rise to power, continued security for Rome seemed likely, but instead, his entire rule was full of challenges that would characterize Roman dilemmas for the coming centuries.
In 161 CE, Aurelius’s first year as emperor, the Tiber River flooded, the Germanic Chatti people raided, legions revolted in Britain, and the Parthians of Persia attacked. Parthia was unsatisfied with the borders instituted during the reign of Emperor Hadrian in the 130s CE, and so seized Armenia for a short while. The Roman response came in 163-64 CE. An army was sent east under the command of general Avidius Cassius. After capturing and burning the Armenian capital Artaxata, he defeated the Parthians at Dura Europa, Seleucia, and Ctesiphon, the latter a Parthian capital, in 165-66 CE. In the end, he had traveled further east than any Roman forces before him, and thus was able to capture western Mesopotamia as a Roman dependency. Aurelius, recognizing the need for strong eastern defenses after this war, gave Cassius supreme command of all forces from Egypt east.
However, the greatest danger of the Roman-Parthian war was not the war itself, but the Antonine plague brought home by Roman soldiers. Thousands of legionnaires died in the field, after which the disease spread to the cities of the Mediterranean basin, becoming the most destructive plague in Roman history. It lasted nearly 15 years, killing millions of Romans with a 25 percent mortality rate among victims. Both the military and the economy suffered as a result of the loss of manpower.
The Marcommanic Wars
It was at just this time (165-66 CE) that Germanic tribes began to cross the Danube River into Roman territory. Finding the Roman garrisons depleted due to both the Parthian campaigns and the Plague, the Germanic Marcomanni and Quadi peoples were even able to move through the Balkans and descend upon northern Italy. However, they were not simply raiding, as there were indications that they would try to settle in Roman territories. In addition, their attacks were unexpectedly fierce, suggesting that population build-up in tribal areas was reaching a tipping point.
Though facing military resource shortages, Marcus Aurelius was resolute in his response. He was able to raise the necessary funds without borrowing, secured troops from all classes, including slaves and gladiators, and built new fortifications along the front. From 167 CE on, he fought on an almost yearly basis on the border districts. After initial Roman losses, the Marcomanni were defeated in 171 CE, while the Quadi were eliminated as a direct threat in 174 CE. Marcus's planned offensive across the Danube was prevented in 175 CE, however, by insurrection. Cassius, still in control of the eastern armies, had himself proclaimed emperor based on a rumor of Aurelius’s death. Though Marcus Aurelius successfully suppressed the revolt, it was not until 178 CE that he was able to renew his Danube offensive. It was during this offensive that he became ill and died in 180 CE.
The Legacy of Marcus Aurelius
At the time of Marcus Aurelius' ascent to the throne, Imperial peace and prosperity seemed secure. Aurelius had a successor in his son, Commodus, and political rights for non-Italian Romans were expanding. Provincials with the necessary wealth or education were allowed into the Senate or Imperial service, and emperors themselves were now descended from Italian families that had settled outside of the peninsula. There was also a law bestowing Latin rights non-Italians, bringing them ever closer to full citizenship.
However, Marcus Aurelius’ reign and its direct aftermath would be the dividing point between the Roman zenith and decline. There were several key trends that emerged during his reign that would contribute to the Empire’s later downfall. These include:
- Large scale raiding by Germanic tribes
- Financial challenges compounded by costly warfare
- Military conflict on two frontiers thousands of miles apart
- Emperors being chosen by the Praetorian Guard and field legions
- Continued succession crises
- A growing diversity among political leaders, many of whom were less Latinized than their predecessors
