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Manifest Destiny
In the first half of the 19th century, lands west of the Appalachian Mountains were opening due to improved transportation and farming technology. Lands that were previously inaccessible or unworkable became viable for settlement. Americans’ desire to move westward in search of greater economic opportunity drove many to seek their fortunes in new territories. One of the major justifications for this process has been labeled Manifest Destiny, representing the idea that it was America’s destiny to expand its borders across the continent. Fueled by access to minerals and other natural resources, and the hope of economic opportunities and religious freedom, millions of settlers tried their luck along the frontier.
Western Expansion: Government Policies
To make expansion easier, the federal government offered cheap land for sale or sometimes gave it away as an incentive for building and settlement. The Pacific Railway Act provided land for the Transcontinental Railroad, to connect the nation from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. The Transcontinental Railroad made it easier for settlers to get to the West. Additionally, it facilitated an exchange of raw materials from the West and manufactured goods from the Northeast. Furthermore, the Homestead Act of 1862 provided a 160-acre plot of land for any male settler. All the settlers had to do was pay a small administrative fee and farm the land for five years, and the land was theirs. This was a significant incentive for many settlers who could not afford to buy property in the heavily-populated cities back East.
Mexican-American War: Causes
Until 1845, much of the land that is now in the American Southwest was under the control of Mexico. Having achieved its independence from Spain in 1821, Mexico’s territory sprawled from modern-day Texas to California. Many American citizens began to freely settle in Texas, bringing their enslaved workers with them, even though slavery had already been abolished in Mexico. Eventually, with hopes of being annexed by the United States, the Texans declared their own independent republic, the Republic of Texas. Texas fought a war of independence against Mexico that resulted in the realization of the Republic of Texas (1836–1845). Once free from Mexico, Texas immediately applied for statehood in the United States. In 1845, the United States admitted the state of Texas. President James Polk knew that Mexico would not look kindly on this annexation, but his desire for westward expansion prompted him to accept Texas as a state in 1845, thereby increasing the number of slaveholding states in the United States. A year later, a border conflict took place between Mexico and Texas. Despite Illinois Congressman Abraham Lincoln introducing the “Spot Resolution” questioning where the conflict took place, the rallying cry of “American blood shed on American soil” led Congress to approve Polk’s declaration of war and to start the Mexican-American War (1846–1848).
Mexican-American War: Effects
The Mexican-American War lasted two years, with the United States winning a series of victories and the eventual capture of Mexico City. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the war and established massive territorial gains for the United States. Mexico ceded (gave up) lands that became the states of California, Nevada, Utah, and New Mexico to the United States. This large piece of territory was known as the Mexican Cession. The treaty also stated that the United States-Mexican border would be the Rio Grande River, and Mexicans living within the new borders of the United States would be granted citizenship. Many of these new Spanish-speaking citizens faced intense discrimination. What is more, the gain of this large portion of land reignited the question of slavery in the territories and increased conflicts between the U.S. government and both Mexican Americans and Native Americans.
