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The plot of Henry VI, Part 1 is driven by two types of conflict. First, and most obvious, is the military conflict between Henry’s forces and those of the Dauphin Charles. This military conflict plays out in France over territories that Henry’s father had previously conquered. The threat of their loss relates to an oft-cited prophecy: “Henry born at Monmouth [i.e., Henry V] should win all, / And Henry born at Windsor [i.e., Henry VI] should lose all” (3.1.202–203).
The second type of conflict takes place primarily on English soil, as the men of Henry’s court sow dissension through various petty quarrels over status and power. The first of these is the rivalry between Gloucester and Winchester. Gloucester has been named Lord Protector, and as such is responsible for Henry until the young king can rule on his own. Winchester, meanwhile, is a power-hungry bishop who resents Gloucester’s influence over the king and covets it for himself. Their loyal servants fight openly, bringing their masters’ quarrel into the streets of London.
Next, there is the conflict between Richard Plantagenet and Somerset. Their quarrel initially develops out of a legal dispute that is never explicitly detailed for us, but which may relate to Plantagenet’s claim to nobility. His father was found to be a traitor, which led to his loss of title and execution. Yet the execution proceeded without trial, which leaves Plantagenet’s status ambiguous. Eventually, Henry restores his title, and Plantagenet becomes the duke of York—much to the chagrin of Somerset. The rivalry between these men gains symbolic importance as their followers decide to wear different-colored roses to signal their allegiance: white roses for Plantagenet/York, and red roses for Somerset. So begins the infamous “Wars of the Roses.”
Shakespeare masterfully weaves these conflicts together using an oscillating structure in which scenes move rapidly back and forth between the fighting in France and the quarreling in England. As the English military forces make minor gains and suffer major setbacks, we see similar maneuverings occur on the political field. And, as the various political rivalries grow increasingly malignant and sow greater division among noblemen and their followers, the cancer eventually spreads across the Channel and infects the military operations. Thus, the death of the great hero, Lord Talbot, is the indirect result of the rivalry between Somerset and York.
As Henry comes to understand the political complexities his noblemen are caught up in, he’s quick to see how dangerous they are to his military campaign in France. He repeatedly attempts to broker peace in his court, and yet, in his inexperience, he also lacks the authority to command their cooperation. Thus, through no real fault of his own, his kingdom has begun the downward slide that will continue throughout Henry VI, Part 2 and Henry VI, Part 3.
Meanwhile, as the kingdom is under threat internally from lords who put their own lust for power over the struggle for the kingdom, the warrior culture of the age is changing. The great military general, Lord Talbot, stands in stark contrast to the rest of the English nobility. While they are wrapped up in petty squabbles and scheming for their own advancement, Talbot gives voice to an order of chivalry that is rapidly disintegrating. Talbot consistently embodies the traditional ideals of honor and valor, always fighting in the name of his king and for the sake of his country. Yet he also watches as cowardly soldiers flee from battle and fellow military leaders squabble pointlessly. And the enemy, increasingly coldhearted and operating through covert military tactics, seems to disavow all the usual trappings of civilized warfare. Talbot is a man from a lost world where chivalry was once a communally shared masculine ideal passed from father to son. By the end of the play, both Talbot and his son lay dead, and the future of English chivalry has died with them.
If the English army suffers defeats in this play, it isn’t just because of infighting and the failure to live up to Talbot’s idealism. It’s also because of the formidable strength of Joan la Pucelle (our “Joan of Arc”). Although celebrated by Charles and his lords as a visionary virgin, the English call her a whore and attribute her powers to witchcraft. As a woman dressed in men’s armor and playing a man’s role on the battlefield, Joan violates the assigned place of a woman. Her cold pragmatism wins her early victories in the play, but later, when her supernatural powers fail her, Shakespeare depicts this woman as little more than a power-hungry charlatan. Though she defeats Talbot, she ends her life having lost all dignity—another form of decline in a play largely organized around themes of political and ideological degeneration.
The proverbial nail in the coffin comes in the final scenes of the play, as another woman enters the scene. The beautiful Margaret of Anjou has so enchanted Suffolk that he convinces the king to give up a more politically advantageous arrangement and marry her instead. Henry, who had agreed to the previous arrangement understanding that it was best for England, now succumbs to his adolescent desire, casting all advantages to the wind to possess this new beauty. In his first selfish act in the play, Henry unwittingly guarantees his own downfall. For Suffolk, yet another noble in pursuit of individual power, closes the play by announcing his plan to “rule both her, the king, and realm” (5.7.108).
