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Race and ethnicity are central concepts in sociology that shape identities, social structures, and power dynamics. Race is a socially constructed classification of people based on perceived physical characteristics such as skin color, facial features, and hair texture. Ethnicity refers to shared cultural traits, such as language, nationality, and traditions.
Race as a Social Construct
Sociologists argue that racial categories are created and maintained by society. Throughout history, definitions of race have changed—groups that were once excluded from the dominant racial category (such as Irish and Italian immigrants in the U.S.) were later assimilated into the broader “white” racial identity. Research has shown that there is more genetic variation within racial groups than between them, reinforcing the idea that racial categories are socially defined rather than biologically determined. Nevertheless, race remains a powerful social category that influences how individuals are treated and what opportunities they have.
Ethnicity versus Race
While race is based on perceived physical differences, ethnicity is tied to cultural identity, language, religion, and ancestry.
Examples: A person might be racially classified as Asian but ethnically identify as Chinese, Korean, or Filipino. Similarly, Latino is an ethnic identity that includes people of different racial backgrounds.
Ethnic identity can be self-claimed or assigned by society, and individuals may strongly embrace their ethnic heritage or assimilate into the dominant culture over time.
Minority and Dominant Groups
In societies around the world, racial and ethnic groups do not share equal access to power and resources. Sociologists examine these disparities by distinguishing between minority and dominant groups. In sociology, the term minority group does not necessarily refer to numerical size but rather to a group’s social and political power. A minority group (or subordinate group) is one that experiences systematic disadvantage, discrimination, or unequal treatment based on race, ethnicity, or other characteristics. This includes, but is not limited to, African Americans, Indigenous peoples, and Latino communities in the U.S., who have historically faced exclusion, discrimination, and institutional barriers.
A dominant group is one that holds power, privilege, and influence over other groups, often shaping laws, social norms, and economic opportunities. Dominant racial or ethnic groups set cultural standards and essentially determine who is included or excluded from full societal participation. In many Western societies, white populations have historically been the dominant group, benefiting from systemic advantages in areas such as education, housing, and employment. These unequal power dynamics are reinforced through social institutions, longstanding policies, and cultural norms.
Example: In the early-to-mid 20th century, U.S. government agencies such as the Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC) and private banks engaged in something called redlining. In this practice, predominantly Black and minority neighborhoods were marked as “high-risk” for home loans. As a result, Black families were denied mortgages or given predatory loan terms, preventing them from buying homes and accumulating wealth. Meanwhile, white families in “desirable neighborhoods” received government-backed home loans, enabling them to build generational wealth.
