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Sociologists use various theoretical perspectives to explain how race and ethnicity shape social interactions, inequalities, and power structures.
Scapegoat Theory
Scapegoat theory suggests that dominant groups blame marginalized groups for societal problems, typically as a way to redirect frustration and maintain power. When people experience economic hardship, political instability, or social unrest, they might look for someone to blame—often choosing racial or ethnic minorities as targets. For example, in times of economic downturn, immigrants are frequently blamed for “taking jobs,” even when job losses are due to broader economic forces such as automation or outsourcing. Scapegoating serves as a mechanism of social control, reinforcing divisions between groups and distracting from systemic inequalities.
Intersection Theory
Intersection theory, developed by Kimerlé Crenshaw, examines how race, gender, class, and other social identities overlap and interact to shape individual experiences. Unlike traditional views that focus on a single quality often associated with discrimination (e.g., race or gender alone), intersectionality recognizes that individuals face multiple, interconnected forms of discrimination or privilege. For example, a Black woman may experience discrimination differently than a white woman (due to racism) and differently than a Black man (due to sexism). Intersection theory challenges one-size-fits-all approaches to inequality, emphasizing that social categories must be considered together rather than in isolation.
Culture of Prejudice
The culture of prejudice refers to how racism and bias become embedded in societal norms, media, and institutions, leading to the normalization of discriminatory beliefs. Prejudice is not just an individual attitude—it is learned, reinforced, and passed down through socialization, making it deeply ingrained in culture. For example, stereotypes in media reinforce biases by disproportionately portraying Black men as criminals, Asian Americans as the “model minority,” and Latinos as undocumented workers.
Critical Race Theory (CRT)
Critical Race Theory (CRT) is a way of studying how racism is built into laws, policies, and social institutions, rather than just being the result of individual prejudice. CRT argues that racial inequality is structural and systemic, meaning that discrimination is built into society’s legal, economic, and political systems. It was originally developed in law school in the 1970s and 1980s as a way for legal scholars to study how race and racism affect the legal system. Since then, it has influenced history, education, and sociology. Key ideas of CRT include:
Racism Is Ordinary, Not an Exception: Racism is not just an issue of individual bias but is a normal part of society, influencing laws, policies, and institutions.
Structural and Systemic Racism: Laws, court decisions, and government policies have traditionally favored white people while disadvantaging racial minorities (e.g., redlining, school segregation, mass incarceration).
Interest Convergence: This refers to the idea that racial justice progress primarily occurs when it benefits the dominant (white) group (e.g., civil rights laws were passed partly because they improved the U.S. global image during the Cold War).
Social Construction of Race: Race is not biologically real but is socially constructed and used to justify discrimination and inequality.
Counter-Narratives: The perspectives and experiences of marginalized groups are often excluded from mainstream history. Therefore, CRT emphasizes storytelling and lived experiences to challenge the dominant group’s racial narratives.
Criticisms of CRT
While supporters of CRT see it as a tool for understanding and addressing systematic racism, some critics argue that CRT promotes division by focusing too much on racial differences. The discussion around CRT has become a subject of debate in education, politics, and public policy, which intensified during and after the elections of 2024 when Donald Trump specifically targeted CRT, saying that it teaches students to judge people by the color of their skin. In February 2025, President Trump signed an executive order banning CRT in K-12 schools.
