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Prejudice, discrimination, and racism all contribute to racial inequalities, but they operate in different ways. Prejudice refers to biased beliefs or attitudes toward a racial or ethnic group. Discrimination involves actions that treat people unfairly based on their race. Racism is a belief system, practice, or social structure that results in the unequal treatment or discrimination of individuals or groups based on their race or ethnicity. It operates at multiple levels, including individual attitudes, institutional policies, and structural inequalities.
Stereotypes
Stereotypes play a powerful role in shaping perceptions of racial and ethnic groups, often influencing how individuals are treated in society. Stereotypes are oversimplified generalized beliefs about racial or ethnic groups, often based on assumption rather than reality. While some stereotypes may seem positive (e.g., the “model minority” stereotype that assumes Asian Americans are naturally high-achieving), they still reinforce rigid expectations and overlook individual differences. Negative stereotypes are particularly harmful as they contribute to social stigma, discrimination, and unequal treatment. Media, education, and cultural narratives often reinforce stereotypes.
Prejudice versus Discrimination
Though often used interchangeably, prejudice and discrimination are not the same:
- Prejudice is an attitude—a preconceived opinion or judgment about a racial or ethnic group, usually based on stereotypes.
- Discrimination is an action—treating people unfairly based on their race, whether through exclusion, denial of opportunities, or unequal treatment in workplaces, schools, or housing.
White Privilege
Racial inequalities are not just about disadvantages faced by marginalized groups but also about unearned advantages held by dominant groups. White privilege refers to unearned advantages that white individuals receive in society due to systemic racial inequalities. It does not mean that white people do not struggle or work hard, but rather that the fact of their race does not create additional barriers for them. White privilege can be seen in:
Education: Schools in areas with predominantly white people tend to receive better funding and resources.
Criminal Justice: White individuals are less likely to be racially profiled or receive harsh sentences compared to Black or Latino individuals.
Job Market: Studies show that resumes with “white-sounding” names receive more callbacks than those with names associated with racial minorities, even when qualifications are the same.
Recognizing white privilege is not about blaming individuals but rather about understanding how racial advantages and disadvantages have been built into society over time.
Types of Racism
Racism exists in many forms, ranging from individual bias to deeply ingrained institutional and structural inequalities. Recognizing these different types of racism is important for understanding how racial disparities are maintained over time.
Individual Racism
Individual racism occurs between individuals, where one person engages in racial discrimination, prejudice, or harassment toward another.
Examples of individual racism include:
- A store employee following a Black customer because they assume they will shoplift.
- A teacher assuming a Latino student is less intelligent due to stereotypes.
- A landlord denying an apartment to an Asian applicant based on racial bias.
Systemic Racism
Systemic racism refers to longstanding racial inequalities that are deeply embedded in institutions such as education, healthcare, and the legal system. Unlike individual racism, which focuses on personal interactions, systemic racism is built into the policies and practices of society.
Examples of systematic racism include:
Educational inequality: Schools in predominantly Black and Latino communities often receive less funding and fewer resources.
Healthcare Disparities: Black and Indigenous women in the U.S. face higher maternal mortality rates due to medical bias and lack of access to quality care.
Criminal Justice Disparities: People of color, particularly Black and Latino individuals, are more likely to be arrested and receive harsher sentences than white individuals for the same crimes.
Systemic racism does not require individual racist intentions. It exists even when no one is openly expressing racist beliefs because it is woven into the structure of institutions.
Structural Racism
Structural racism is closely related to systemic racism and refers to how laws, policies, and institutions work together to create and maintain racial inequalities. Unlike individual racism, which involves personal prejudice, structural racism exists even when people within the system do not intend to discriminate.
Examples of structural racism include:
Redlining: A policy from the 1930s where banks and real estate companies denied home loans to Black families.
Employment Discrimination: Racial minorities are often paid less for the same work and have fewer opportunities for promotion.
Voter Suppression: Laws that require strict voter ID or reduce the number of polling locations disproportionately affect Black and Latino communities, making it more difficult for them to vote.
Institutional Racism
Institutional racism refers to policies, laws, and practices within institutions (such as schools, workplaces, healthcare, and the legal system) that systematically disadvantage certain racial groups while benefiting others. Institutional racism is closely associated with structural racism. If multiple institutions in different sectors (e.g., education, employment, healthcare, and housing) work together—whether intentionally or not—to maintain racial disparities, institutional racism becomes part of structural racism.
Examples of institutional racism include:
- A discriminatory school system (institutional racism) leads to fewer job opportunities for certain racial groups.
- Discriminatory hiring practices (institutional racism) lead to widening racial wealth gaps.
Historical Racism
Historical racism refers to the lasting effects of past racial injustices that continue to shape society today. While many discriminatory laws have been repealed, their social and economic impact remains.
Examples of historical racism include:
Slavery and Jim Crow Laws: The enslavement of Black people and segregation laws left deep economic and social disadvantages that still exist today, including disparities in wealth, education, and housing.
Displacement of Indigenous Peoples: Native American communities were forcibly removed from their land through government policies, leading to generational poverty and ongoing health disparities.
Japanese American Internment: During WWII, the U.S. government forced thousands of Japanese Americans into internment camps, stripping them of their homes and businesses.
Understanding historical racism is important because the consequences of past discrimination continue to shape present inequalities.
Cultural Racism
Cultural racism is the belief that some cultures are better or more advanced than others. This idea reinforces racial stereotypes and is often used to justify discrimination.
Examples of cultural racism include:
Devaluing Non-Western Cultures: European traditions, languages, and customs are often seen as more “civilized,” while non-Western cultures are dismissed or treated as less important.
Erasing Indigenous and Black History: Many school curriculums focus mostly on European and American history while leaving out or minimizing the histories of Indigenous, Black, and other marginalized communities.
Forcing Cultural Assimilation: Immigrants are often expected to fully adopt the dominant white culture, while their own traditions, languages, and customs may be ignored, discouraged, or mocked.
Cultural racism often operates subtly but plays a significant role in shaping racial hierarchies.
Colorblind Racism
Colorblind racism is the idea that ignoring race will eliminate racism. While this may sound positive, it often dismisses real racial inequalities and makes it harder to address systemic issues. For instance, saying “I don’t see race” ignores the fact that race affects people’s experiences and opportunities. Acknowledging race is necessary to address inequality.
Racial Profiling
Racial profiling is when law enforcement, businesses, or other institutions target individuals based on racial stereotypes rather than actual behavior. For example, studies show that Black drivers are 20% more likely to be pulled over by police than white drivers, even though they are less likely to be found with illegal contraband during searches. Racial profiling reinforces stereotypes and leads to the disproportionate policing of racial minorities, contributing to mistrust between communities and law enforcement.
The Model Minority Myth
Stereotypes about racial groups can take different forms, including seemingly positive ones, that can nonetheless be damaging. The model minority myth is the stereotype that certain racial or ethnic groups—particularly Asian Americans—are naturally more successful, intelligent, and hardworking compared to other minority groups. While this stereotype may seem positive, it has significant harmful consequences. For instance, it ignores diversity within racial groups. The term “Asian American” includes over 20 ethnic groups, ranging from Indian and Chinese Americans to Filipino, and Vietnamese, and Hmong communities. While some groups may have high economic success, others face significant poverty and educational barriers.
Examples: Indian and Chinese Americans have some of the highest median incomes in the U.S., while Hmong and Cambodian Americans experience poverty rates that are nearly double the national average. Furthermore, this stereotype reinforces racial hierarchies. The model minority myth suggests that other minority groups, such as Black and Latino communities, simply “aren’t working hard enough” to succeed, ignoring the systemic barriers they face. Finally, it masks discrimination against Asian Americans because Asian Americans are perceived as successful. Therefore, their experiences with racism, workplace discrimination, and political underrepresentation are often overlooked.
Institutional and Structural Racism
Institutional and structural racism can show up in many forms. These forms of racism operate on a systemic level, meaning that even if no one person intends to discriminate, the rules and structures of society still lead to unequal outcomes for different racial groups.
One of the clearest ways institutional and structural racism manifest is in housing discrimination, which has historically been shaped by racial segregation and economic inequality. Practices such as racial steering and segregation have created long-lasting disparities in wealth, education, and community resources.
Racial steering is the practice of real estate agents guiding homebuyers or renters toward or away from certain neighborhoods based on race. This practice contributes to racially divided communities, influencing access to quality schools, job opportunities, and public resources.
Example: A study by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) found that Black and Latino home seekers were shown 15-20 percent fewer homes than white buyers in certain markets. Even though racial steering is illegal under the Fair Housing Act of 1968, studies show that it still occurs in subtle ways, helping to sustain racial segregation.
Segregation refers to the physical and social separation of racial groups, often leading to deep disparities in education, employment, and economic opportunities. Historically, segregation was legally enforced through laws such as Jim Crow segregation in the U.S. South, which kept Black and white Americans in separate schools, neighborhoods, and public spaces. Even after legal segregation ended, residential segregation continued due to:
Redlining: The practice where banks and the federal government refused to grant home loans to people in Black and Latino neighborhoods.
White Flight: Many white families moved to the suburbs when Black families began moving into formerly all-white areas, leading to ongoing racial divisions in cities.
School Segregation: While official school segregation ended with Brown v. Board of Education (1954), many schools remain racially divided due to housing patterns and unequal school funding.
Modern segregation still exists, even though it is no longer legally mandated. Black and Latino families are more likely to live in underfunded neighborhoods with fewer resources, leading to ongoing racial inequalities in education, employment, and healthcare.
