The Middle Ages, which lasted from the fall of
Rome in the late fifth century until the fourteenth
century, are (somewhat exaggeratedly and incorrectly) often referred to as the
"Dark Ages," due to the relative lack of intellectual and economic progress made
during this long period. The Middle Ages were presided over by the Catholic
Church, which preached the denial of worldly pleasures and the subjugation of
self-expression. During the Middle Ages, European society was defined by the
system of feudalism, under which societal classes were hierarchically
divided based on their position in the prevailing agrarian economy. This system
produced a large number of scattered, self-sufficient feudal units throughout
Europe, made up of a lord and his subservient vassals. These feudal lords were
constantly in battle during the early middle ages, their armies of peasants
facing off to win land for their lords.
However, during the later Middle Ages, this situation changed greatly. The
power of the Church declined as monarchies rose up to consolidate feudal manors
into powerful city-states and nation-states that often opposed the Church in
matters of tax collection and legal jurisdiction. Along with the rise of
monarchies came the rise of the money economy. As monarchs brought peace to
feudal society, feudal lords concentrated less upon defending their lands and
more upon accruing large quantities of cash, with which they improved their
style of living and dabbled in the growing market economy. The practice of
serfdom declined and former serfs soon became tenant farmers and even landowners
rather than subservient slave-like laborers. As the trade of agricultural and
manufactured goods grew in importance, cities also became more important.
Strategically located and wealthy cities became populous and modern, and some
cities even boasted factories.
Largely because of the simultaneous and related decline of the singular
importance of traditional values and the rise of the market economy, the cities
of Italy gave birth to the Renaissance. The famous Renaissance historian Jacob
Burkhardt argues in his essay, Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy,
that the Renaissance was, as an historical event, the transition from medieval
times, during which the focus of all life had been religion, to modern times, in
which that focus expanded to include learning, rationality, and realism.
Whereas in the Middle Ages, religious salvation had occupied the position of
utmost importance, during the Renaissance, humanism, stressing the need for
individuals to reach their potential in this world, rose up to accompany and
rival the goal of salvation. During the Renaissance, changes also occurred in
the political and economic structure of Italy that foreshadowed larger
transformations for all of Europe. The Renaissance saw the rise of strong
central governments and an increasingly urban economy, based on commerce rather
than agriculture.
The results of the Italian Renaissance were far reaching both in temporal and
geographical terms. Though the spirit of the Renaissance in Italy was crushed
in the mid-sixteenth century, the ideas and ideals of Renaissance thinkers
maintained their vibrancy, traveling over the alps to northern Europe where,
following Italy's lead, learning, writing, and the arts experienced a great
revival in support and importance. The works of art and literature produced in
Italy between 1350 and 1550 had a profound impact on the development of Europe
during the next centuries, and continue to be considered some of the greatest
contributions to society ever produced. The sheer volume of work produced
ensures the period a prominent place in history books and museums, but the
volume is far surpassed by the talent and splendor with which the artists and
writers, funded by generous leaders, created their masterpieces.
Perhaps the greatest immediate impact of the Renaissance was the
Reformation, which began in 1517. Although the
arguments of the Protestant reformers had been elucidated centuries before, the
Reformation could not have happened had the Italian Renaissance not created the
climate of passion and intellectualism throughout Europe necessary to allow the
challenging of age old values. The Renaissance had seen the behavior of popes
come to increasingly parallel the behavior of princes, as they attempted to
compete with the gilded city-states around them. The papacy had fallen into
corruption on more than one occasion, and the sale of
indulgences, essentially pardons for sins, in
order to finance the construction of a new St. Peter's basilica, pushed the
reformers over the edge and into protest. The Church suffered similarly at the
hands of the humanist attack, which through the study of ancient history and
documents, had proven many claims made by the Church to be false. The result
was a movement that shook the foundations of all of Europe and created a split
in Christianity that remains a potent source of conflict even today.
