Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, or literary
devices that can help to develop and inform the text’s major themes.
Christian Allegory
Although the narrator rarely alludes to the Bible explicitly, Billy Budd contains
many implicit allusions to the imagery, language, and stories of
the Bible, creating a sustained parallel between Billy’s story and
Christ’s Passion, the story of Christ’s suffering and death on the
cross. Like Christ, Billy sacrifices his life as the innocent victim
of a hostile society. Vere’s role in the story parallels that of
Pontius Pilate in the Gospels, as he is the official who permits
the sacrifice by following the letter of the law instead of his
own conscience. Claggart functions as a satanic figure, tempting
Billy into evil and working to destroy him throughout the novel.
Satan is not a part of the story of Christ’s Passion, and Claggart’s
temptation of Billy more closely mirrors the serpent’s temptation
of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden than anything in the Gospels.
The narrator makes Claggart’s connection to the serpent in Genesis
more explicit by comparing Claggart’s dead body to the corpse of
a snake. In addition to these main parallels, the novel’s innumerable
Christian references form a complex web of associations and contrasts.
Critics remain sharply divided over whether Billy Budd’s
religious imagery represents Melville’s embrace of religion or harsh
critique of it, which illustrates the ambiguity of the religious
allegory in the story. Melville leaves to each reader the decision
of what the connection between Billy Budd and Christianity signifies.
Suggestive Names
Throughout the novel, Melville uses names to indicate
ideas about the true nature of people and things. For example, Billy’s
last name, Budd, suggests his innocence and youth by conjuring an
image of a flower’s bud. Captain Vere’s name suggests his tendency
to veer between attitudes. The name of the Rights-of-Man suggests
the greater individual liberties enjoyed by the crew of that happier
ship, while the name of the Bellipotent suggests
its association with war and the power represented by its military
order. The name of the Athée means “the atheist,”
and when this ship defeats the Bellipotent—which
carries the characters who stand for Christian figures—the event
suggests that Christian society moves toward a disastrous fall from
grace as it becomes more dependent on violence and military discipline.
Primitive and Animal Imagery
The narrator frequently uses animal imagery to describe
both Billy and his fellow sailors. For example, the narrator remarks
that Billy appears to have the “self-consciousness” of a Saint Bernard.
Later, the narrator says that Billy “was like a young horse fresh
from the pasture suddenly inhaling a vile whiff from some chemical
factory” when presented with the conspiratorial bribe. Again, during
the trial, Billy gives Vere a questioning look “not unlike that
which a dog of generous breed might turn upon his master.” When
he lashes out at Claggart, Billy is said to resemble a cornered
dog or caged monkey. This animal imagery functions primarily to
highlight Billy’s extreme innocence, suggesting moreover that he
is distanced from society because he lacks the proper vocabulary
to understand social interactions. Melville combines this animal
imagery with references to Billy as a “babe,” a “savage,” and an
“upright barbarian,” suggesting that Billy represents Melville’s
exploration of what happens to the natural or primitive man when
confronted with the law and Christianity.
Mutiny
Mutiny figures prominently in the plot and historical
background of Billy Budd, and it relates to numerous
themes as well. The feigned mutinous conspiracy presented to Billy
by the anonymous stranger on the upper deck ultimately leads to
his demise. The narrator spends much time detailing the mutinies
that ultimately led to the Mutiny Act, the law that necessitates
Vere’s condemnation of Billy. On the one hand, mutiny represents
opposition to war. It also represents individuality and agency in
the face of authority. Still, since a successful mutiny requires
the cooperation of many sailors, it also represents a form of society.
Moreover, this association defines itself in opposition to an authoritarian
force that aims to keep men separated from their fellow dissenters.
Thus, the captains whistle the men back to their individual duties
quickly whenever they hear a murmur in the crowd.
