Previous Next

XI. The Nine Situations

This essay is the longest in the book and is concerned with the nine “types of ground.” This relates to tactics, not geographic conditions or structures, which is covered in Essay X. Sun Tzu starts by naming nine types of ground: dispersive ground, facile ground, contentious ground, open ground, ground of intersecting highways, serious ground, difficult ground, hemmed-in ground, and desperate ground. Dispersive ground is when the army is fighting in its own territory. Facile ground is the closest edge of enemy territory. Contentious ground is any region that has tactical significance if it is held. Open ground allows each side freedom of movement.  Ground of intersecting highways “forms the key to three contiguous states.” This is an area such as the capital or a large trade city that has significance to the command of the nation. Serious ground describes a large distance into enemy territory that has been fortified by the invading army. Difficult ground is that which Earth makes difficult to travel (mountains, dense forests, marshes, etc.). Hemmed-in ground is that which makes retreat difficult, such as the bottom of a gorge, and would make an excellent place for an enemy ambush. Desperate ground is any region where one’s army must fight without delay to avoid defeat.

The various types of ground are described with the purpose of invading enemy territory. Sun Tzu reiterates that one should use the types of ground to cause confusion and disorganization for the enemy. He next discusses the necessity of keeping the army moving forward, especially in enemy territory, so that they do not consider retreat. He also warns against the “taking of omens.” A leader should not let superstition affect the morale of the army. Sun Tzu further describes the need to maintain morale and “set up one standard of courage.” There will inevitably be stronger and weaker soldiers in an army. It is the job of the leader to execute plans that maximize potential.

Read an explantion of a key quote (#4) about how essential it is to understand an enemy’s weakness.

In the last part of the essay, Sun Tzu describes how one can maintain morale on the nine types of ground. The further one penetrates enemy territory, the more solidarity one can expect from the soldiers. The understanding of the nine types of ground is essential for effective planning, manipulation of the enemy, and discerning when it is best to attack.

Read an explantion of a key quote (#5) about maintaining soldiers’ morale.

XII. The Attack by Fire

In this essay, Sun Tzu describes the benefits of using fire in warfare. He starts with labeling the five effective uses of fire: burning soldiers in their camp; burning enemy food storage; burning supply lines; burning arsenals and ammunition storage; and “dropping fire amongst the enemy.” Sun Tzu advises that a leader should always have the means to use fire, but it is especially effective when it is dry and windy. He describes five possible developments when attacking with fire. If the enemy’s camp is set aflame, one should attack outside the camp. If the enemy does not respond to a fire, one should wait. When the fire is at its strongest, one should attack, if practical. Using fire “from within” is easier than burning the edges of a camp or other target, but attack “from without” can be effective. And last, do not throw fire against the wind. A clever leader will plan to intercept soldiers that try to use water to combat fire attacks. Sun Tzu closes with a warning about fire, and war overall: One should always use caution. “A kingdom that has once been destroyed can never come again into being.”

XIII. The Use of Spies

In this essay, Sun Tzu starts by describing the benefits of foreknowledge. With effective foreknowledge, a leader can avoid prolonged campaigns that will drain resources and avoid unnecessary casualties. He states that experience and calculation will not render foreknowledge. It must be attained through the use of spies. Sun Tzu lists the five kinds of spies: local spies, inward spies, converted spies, doomed spies, and surviving spies. Through the application of the five types of spies, one can discover the secret system known as “divine manipulation of the threads.” Sun Tzu does not describe this concept further or offer a less nebulous definition. It is likely that it is a reference to the “threads” of a network (a web or piece of fabric) or the “threads” of fate/fortune.

Sun Tzu goes on to describe the definition of each spy. Local spies are those who are available in the local area. Inward spies provide information about enemy officers and officials. Converted spies are captured enemy spies who can be assimilated or redirected. Doomed spies are those who openly give false information to the enemy. Surviving spies are those who have visited or escaped from an enemy camp. Sun Tzu recommends the liberal use of spies overall and states that they should be highly rewarded and treated with honesty and benevolence. He recommends harsh punishment (execution) for spies who divulge secrets. He also recommends tempting enemy spies with bribes and housing, thus becoming converted spies.  Information supplied by these converted spies makes acquiring local and inward spies easier. Sun Tzu closes with an emphatic endorsement of the use of spies, especially the conversion of the enemy’s spies.

Previous section Section 3: Essays VII-X Next section Full Book Summary & Analysis

Take a Study Break