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Social Norms
Social norms are unwritten rules or expectations that govern how individuals should behave in various situations. These norms help maintain social order by guiding interactions, ensuring predictability, and promoting cohesion within a group or society. They influence both individual behavior and collective dynamics, shaping everything from daily interactions to broader cultural practices.
Norms can be explicit, such as rules or laws, or implicit, such as societal expectations around politeness or dress codes. For example, standing in line at a store reflects an implicit social norm, while driving on the right-hand side of the road (in most countries) follows an explicit norm enforced by law.
Social roles are closely tied to norms and refer to the behaviors expected of individuals based on their position in a group or society. For instance, teachers are expected to educate students, while students are expected to learn and follow classroom rules.
Norms influence mental processes by shaping an individual’s perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors. People often conform to norms to gain social acceptance or avoid conflict. Deviating from norms can result in social disapproval or feelings of discomfort, demonstrating the power of societal expectations in shaping behavior.
Social Influence Theory
Social influence theory explains how individuals’ thoughts, behaviors, and attitudes are shaped by the presence, actions, or expectations of others. This social influence can take two primary forms: normative and informational.
Normative social influence arises from the desire to gain social approval or avoid social disapproval. People conform to group norms or expectations to fit in, even when they privately disagree. For example, a student might laugh at a joke they don’t find funny because their friends are laughing, reflecting a desire to maintain group harmony. Normative influence often drives behaviors related to peer pressure, fashion trends, or adhering to cultural norms.
Informational social influence occurs when individuals look to others for guidance in ambiguous or uncertain situations. People conform because they believe others have more knowledge or insight about what is correct. For example, if a person is unsure how to behave at a formal event, he or she might observe and mimic others’ actions to avoid making mistakes. Informational influence is particularly strong in new, unfamiliar, or high-stakes situations where people seek clarity and understanding.
Persuasion
Persuasion refers to the deliberate use of various techniques to convince oneself or others to adopt specific ideas, beliefs, or actions. It is a critical component of communication and social influence, shaping behaviors and attitudes across various settings, including advertising, politics, and personal relationships.
Routes to Persuasion
The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) explains how people are persuaded through two main routes: the central route and the peripheral route. These routes depend on the audience’s motivation and ability to process information.
The central route involves careful consideration of the content of a message, focusing on logical arguments, evidence, and facts. This route requires the audience to be motivated and capable of processing the information deeply. For example, when deciding on a political candidate, a voter who carefully examines policies, debate performances, and factual evidence is using the central route. Persuasion through this route tends to result in more enduring attitude change because it is based on thoughtful analysis.
The peripheral route, in contrast, relies on superficial cues or emotional appeals rather than detailed arguments. This route is often used when the audience is less engaged or unable to process the information critically. For example, an advertisement might use a celebrity endorsement or appealing visuals to persuade viewers without focusing on the product’s features. Persuasion via this route tends to lead to temporary or less-stable attitude change.
The halo effect is an example of a peripheral route to persuasion. It occurs when people’s positive impressions of one characteristic, such as physical attractiveness or perceived intelligence, influence their overall judgment, even in unrelated areas. For instance, an attractive person might be assumed to be more trustworthy or competent, which could sway opinions in their favor without substantial evidence.
Persuasion Strategies
The way information is presented plays a crucial role in persuasion, as demonstrated by the foot-in-the-door and door-in-the-face techniques.
The foot-in-the-door technique involves starting with a small request to gain compliance before making a larger request. This method relies on the principle of consistency: once people agree to a small task, they are more likely to agree to a related, larger task to stay consistent with their initial commitment. For example, if someone agrees to sign a petition (a small request), they may be more likely to later donate money to the cause (a larger request). This technique is effective because the initial agreement creates a sense of investment or obligation.
The door-in-the-face technique takes the opposite approach by starting with a large request that is expected to be refused, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request. This strategy counts on the principle of reciprocity: after rejecting a large request, people may feel inclined to comply with a smaller one as a way to “compromise.” For instance, a charity might first ask for a substantial donation, and when refused, ask for a smaller amount, which then seems more manageable by comparison.
Conformity
Conformity is the process of giving in to real or imagined pressure from a group. In the 1950s, the psychologist Solomon Asch did a famous study that demonstrated that people often conform.
Asch’s Conformity Study
Asch recruited male undergraduate subjects for the study and told them that he was doing research on visual perception. He placed each subject in a room with six accomplices. The subject thought that the six were also subjects. The seven people were then given a series of easy tasks. In each task, they looked at two cards, one with a single line on it and the other with three lines of different lengths. The people were asked to decide which line on the second card was the same length as the line on the first card. On the first two tasks, the accomplices announced the correct answer to the group, as did the subject. On the next 12 tasks, the accomplices picked a line on the second card that was clearly a wrong answer. When put in this situation, more than one-third of the subjects conformed to the choices made by their group.
Factors That Influence Conformity
Asch and other researchers have found that many factors influence conformity:
Group size: Asch found that group size influenced whether subjects conformed. The bigger the group, the more people conformed, up to a certain point. After group size reached a certain limit, conformity didn’t increase any further.
Unanimity: Asch also found that subjects were much more likely to conform when a group agreed unanimously. If even one other person in the group disagreed with the group, a subject was much less likely to conform. This was true even when the other dissenter disagreed with the subject as well as the group.
Cohesion: People are more likely to conform when they feel a strong connection to the group. Shared values, goals, or close relationships increase this effect.
Status: High-status groups or individuals exert more influence, making people more likely to conform to their expectations.
Public Responses: Conformity increases when individuals must express their opinions or decisions publicly. In these circumstances, fear of judgment or rejection plays a role.
Ambiguity: When the situation is unclear or when individuals lack confidence in their understanding, they are more likely to conform to group norms or behaviors.
Reasons for Conforming
People have many reasons for conforming:
- They want to be accepted by the group, or they fear rejection by the group. In this case, the group is exerting normative social influence.
- The group provides them with information. In this case, the group is exerting informational social influence.
- They want a material or social reward, such as a pay raise or votes.
- They admire the group and want to be like other group members.
Obedience and Authority
Obedience is compliance with commands given by an authority figure. In the 1960s, the social psychologist Stanley Milgram did a famous research study called the obedience study. It showed that people have a strong tendency to comply with authority figures.
Milgram’s Obedience Study
Milgram told his 40 male volunteer research participants that they were participating in a study about the effects of punishment on learning. He assigned each of the participants to the role of teacher. Each participant was told that his task was to help another participant like himself learn a list of word pairs. Each time the learner made a mistake, the teachers were instructed by an authority figure to deliver what they believed were painful electric shocks to the learner. The teacher was told to increase the shock level each time the learner made a mistake, until a dangerous shock level was reached.
Throughout the course of the experiment, the authority figure firmly commanded the teachers to follow the instructions they had been given. In reality, the learner was not a participant of the experiment, but Milgram’s accomplice, and he never actually received an electric shock. However, he pretended to be in pain when shocks were administered.
Prior to the study, 40 psychiatrists that Milgram consulted told him that fewer than one percent of participants would administer what they thought were dangerous shocks to the learner. However, Milgram found that two-thirds of the teachers did administer even the highest level of shock, despite believing that the learner was suffering great pain and distress. Milgram believed that the teachers had acted in this way because they were pressured to do so by an authority figure.
Factors That Increase Obedience
Milgram found that subjects were more likely to obey in some circumstances than others. Obedience was highest when:
- Commands were given by an authority figure rather than another volunteer.
- The experiments were done at a prestigious institution.
- The authority figure was present in the room with the subject.
- The learner was in another room.
- The subject did not see other subjects disobeying commands.
In everyday situations, people obey orders because they want to get rewards, because they want to avoid the negative consequences of disobeying, and because they believe an authority is legitimate. In more extreme situations, people obey even when they are required to violate their own values or commit crimes. Researchers think several factors cause people to carry obedience to extremes:
- People justify their behavior by assigning responsibility to the authority rather than themselves.
- People define the behavior that’s expected of them as routine.
- People don’t want to be rude or offend the authority.
- People obey easy commands first and then feel compelled to obey more and more difficult commands. This process is called entrapment, and it illustrates the foot-in-the-door phenomenon.
Groups
Social psychologists consider a group to be composed of two or more people who interact and depend on each other in some way. Examples of groups include a baseball team, an internet listserv, a college psychology class, or a cult.
Features of Groups
Groups usually have the following features:
- Norms that determine appropriate behavior
- Roles that are assigned to people that determine what behaviors and responsibilities people should take on
- A communication structure that determines who talks to whom within the group
- A power structure that determines how much authority and influence group members have
Example: A college psychology class has norms, such as when people should arrive for class. The professor’s role includes teaching, inviting discussion, and administering exams. The students’ role is to attend class, listen to lectures, read materials, and pose questions. The communication structure of the class demands that students listen without talking to each other while the professor lectures. The power structure gives the professor more authority than any of the students. Some students also may have more authority and influence than other students, such as those who are more familiar with the class material.
Cultural Groups
Cultural phenomena such as individualism, collectivism, and multiculturalism play a significant role in shaping how people perceive themselves and others as well as how they behave in social contexts. These cultural frameworks influence attitudes, values, and interpersonal interactions, affecting both behavior and mental processes.
Individualistic cultures, such as those in the United States and many Western countries, emphasize personal autonomy, independence, and self-expression. People in individualistic cultures are more likely to define their identity based on personal achievements, goals, and traits. This cultural orientation fosters competition, self-reliance, and a focus on personal rights. Behavior in individualistic societies often prioritizes personal success over group harmony, and individuals may perceive themselves as distinct from others.
Collectivist cultures, such as those in many Asian, African, and Latin American countries, emphasize group harmony, interdependence, and shared goals. People in collectivist cultures often define their identity in terms of their relationships and roles within groups such as family, community, or the workplace. Collectivism fosters cooperation, loyalty, and conformity to social norms. In collectivist societies, behavior often prioritizes the well-being of the group over individual desires, and interpersonal relationships play a central role in decision-making and self-perception.
Multiculturalism
Multiculturalism refers to the coexistence of multiple cultural identities within a society. It emphasizes the recognition and appreciation of diverse cultural perspectives and promotes mutual respect and inclusion. Multicultural societies encourage individuals to maintain their unique cultural identities while engaging with, and learning from, other cultures. This phenomenon influences behavior and mental processes by broadening perspectives, reducing prejudice, and fostering empathy through increased exposure to diverse viewpoints.
Group Dynamics
Being a member of a group can significantly influence individual behavior and mental processes, often in ways that differ from when people act alone. Group phenomena include group polarization, groupthink, diffusion of responsibility, social loafing, and deindividuation.
Group polarization occurs when individuals in a group adopt more extreme positions or attitudes than they would individually. This phenomenon happens because group discussions often amplify shared opinions, reinforcing a more extreme stance. For example, a group of like-minded individuals discussing a political topic may shift toward a more radical viewpoint than any single member originally held.
Groupthink is a tendency for groups to prioritize harmony and consensus over critical thinking and realistic appraisal of alternative ideas. In groupthink, members may suppress dissenting opinions, overlook potential risks, or fail to consider all options to maintain unity.
Diffusion of responsibility occurs when individuals in a group feel less personal accountability for their actions, believing that others share the responsibility. This phenomenon is often seen in public circumstances wherein someone needs help (e.g., a driver with a flat tire) but others fail to act because they assume someone else will intervene. This is known as the bystander effect.
Social loafing refers to the tendency of individuals to exert less effort when working in a group compared to when working alone. This occurs because group members may feel their contributions are less noticeable or essential. For example, in a group project, some individuals may contribute less, expecting others to carry the workload.
Deindividuation occurs when individuals lose their sense of self-awareness and personal responsibility in group settings, often leading to behavior they might not exhibit alone. Factors like anonymity and group size contribute to this effect. Deindividuation can result in impulsive or aggressive behavior, such as looting during a riot.
Social Facilitation
Social facilitation refers to the phenomenon where an individual’s performance on a task is influenced by the presence of others. This can lead to either improved or worsened performance depending on the nature of the task.
For simple or well-practiced tasks, social facilitation often enhances performance because the presence of an audience increases arousal, which increases focus and motivation. For example, a runner might achieve a faster time during a race in front of cheering spectators than when running alone. However, for complex or unfamiliar tasks, the presence of others can impair performance due to increased pressure and anxiety, which can interfere with concentration. For instance, a student giving a public speech for the first time may perform worse when faced with an audience. The underlying mechanism of social facilitation is related to arousal levels. The presence of others increases physiological arousal.
False Consensus Effect
The false consensus effect is a cognitive bias where individuals overestimate how much others share their beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. This happens because people often use their own experiences and viewpoints as a reference point when evaluating others, leading to the assumption that their perspectives are more widespread than they actually are.
Example: Someone who enjoys a particular genre of music might believe that most people share the same preference, even if that is not true. Similarly, in social or political discussions, individuals may assume that their opinions represent the majority, which can lead to misunderstandings or overconfidence in group settings.
The false consensus effect reinforces an individual’s confidence in their beliefs, which can affect decision-making and interpersonal interactions. It also makes people less likely to consider alternative viewpoints or engage in constructive dialogue with those who disagree.
Superordinate Goals and Social Traps
Superordinate goals are shared goals that require cooperation between different groups to achieve. These goals override individual or group interests in ways that encourage collaboration and reduce hostility. When distinct groups work together toward a superordinate goal, it can help diminish negative stereotypes and prejudice by promoting a sense of unity.
Example: If two rival teams join forces to clean up a community park, their collective effort can shift their focus from competition to collaboration, promoting positive relationships and mutual respect.
In contrast, social traps occur when individuals or groups prioritize their own self-interest over the well-being of the larger group, leading to outcomes that harm everyone involved. Social traps are often driven by short-term rewards or incentives that conflict with long-term benefits.
Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology
Industrial-Organizational (I/O) psychology focuses on understanding and improving workplace behavior and dynamics. I/O psychologists study how people perform in their jobs, the relationships among employees, and how management practices influence productivity and satisfaction. Their research aims to optimize organizational performance while also enhancing employee well-being.
I/O psychologists investigate a wide range of workplace issues, including leadership styles, team dynamics, and job satisfaction. They explore best practices in management, focusing on strategies that foster motivation, engagement, and collaboration. For instance, effective leadership and clear communication can significantly improve team performance and morale.
Another key focus of I/O psychology is understanding how people feel about work. This includes studying burnout, a state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion caused by chronic stress or dissatisfaction in the workplace. I/O psychologists develop interventions to prevent burnout, such as promoting work-life balance, designing supportive work environments, and encouraging employee recognition.
Prosocial Behaviors
Prosocial behavior refers to actions intended to benefit others, such as helping, sharing, or cooperating. These behaviors can positively impact both the person performing them and the recipient. Engaging in prosocial acts fosters feelings of empathy, strengthens social bonds, and promotes mental well-being.
Altruism
Altruism is defined as selfless behavior performed to help others, often without any expectation of personal gain. However, researchers have debated whether truly selfless altruism exists, suggesting that prosocial behaviors may sometimes be motivated by social norms and expectations rather than purely selfless intentions. Two key norms explain how social influences shape altruistic behavior: the social reciprocity norm and the social responsibility norm.
The Social Reciprocity Norm: This norm suggests that people are more likely to help others who have helped them in the past. Helping behavior in this context is motivated by a sense of obligation or the desire to repay a perceived social debt. For example, if a coworker assists you with a project, you may feel inclined to return the favor in the future, reinforcing cooperative relationships.
The Social Responsibility Norm: This norm suggests that individuals feel an obligation to help those who are dependent on them or less able to help themselves, such as children, the elderly, or those in need. This expectation is often tied to cultural values emphasizing compassion and care for vulnerable members of society.
While altruism is often perceived as selfless, these social norms suggest that prosocial actions may also stem from societal expectations and the benefits of maintaining cooperative social relationships. Understanding these influences helps clarify why people engage in helping behaviors and how cultural and social contexts shape those behaviors.
The Bystander Effect
Research shows that people are less likely to offer help to someone in distress if other people are also present. This is called the bystander effect. The probability that a person will receive help decreases as the number of people present increases.
Diffusion of responsibility contributes to the bystander effect. A person does not feel as responsible for helping someone if several others are also present since responsibility is distributed among all those present.
Another factor is pluralistic ignorance, which occurs when people trying to assess a situation look to others in the group to see how they are responding. If no one else appears concerned or is taking action, individuals may interpret the situation as non-urgent, even when help is needed.
Attentional focus also plays a role. People are more likely to help if they are aware of the situation and perceive the need for assistance. Distractions, ambiguity about the situation, or fear of social judgment can prevent individuals from stepping forward.
Research on the bystander effect, including studies inspired by the case of Kitty Genovese, demonstrates that situational variables, such as the number of witnesses and attentional factors, like the clarity of the emergency, strongly influence whether people choose to help. Overcoming these barriers often requires individuals to consciously take responsibility or recognize clear cues of urgency.
