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A motive is an impulse that causes a person to act. Motivation is an internal process that makes a person move toward a goal. Motivation, like intelligence, can’t be directly observed. Instead, motivation can only be inferred by noting a person’s behavior.
Researchers have proposed theories that try to explain human motivation. Motivation theories help explain why people engage in specific behaviors to address physical needs and desires. Two key theories, drive reduction theory and arousal theory, focus on how internal and external factors influence behavior.
Drive Reduction Theory
Drive reduction theory suggests that people act in order to reduce needs and maintain a constant physiological state. For example, people eat in order to reduce their need for food. Homeostasis is the maintenance of a state of physiological equilibrium. The idea of homeostasis is central to drive reduction theories.
Drive reduction theories fail to explain several aspects of motivation:
- People sometimes aren’t motivated by internal needs.
Example: Some people fast for long periods for political causes, despite feeling extreme hunger.
- Sometimes, people continue being motivated even when they have satisfied internal needs.
Example: People sometimes eat even when they don’t feel hungry.
- People are often motivated by external incentives as well as internal needs.
Example: If a person is hungry, he or she may choose to eat a salad rather than a cheeseburger because he or she wants to be slimmer.
Arousal Theory
Arousal theory, on the other hand, explains that people are motivated to achieve and maintain an optimal level of arousal. Rather than focusing solely on reducing physiological needs, this theory suggests that individuals seek activities that stimulate or calm them depending on their current arousal state. For instance, someone feeling bored might engage in an exciting activity to increase arousal, while someone feeling stress might practice relaxation techniques to decrease it.
The Yerkes-Dodson law demonstrates how this relationship impacts performance. According to the law, performance improves with arousal up to an optimal point, after which further increases in arousal can hinder performance. For example, moderate anxiety may enhance focus during an exam, but excessive stress could impair concentration and performance.
Self-Determination Theory
Self-determination theory (SDT), developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, proposes that people are motivated by two types of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation comes from within and reflects a desire to perform an activity for its inherent satisfaction or personal growth. For example, someone may read a book because they enjoy learning, not because they are studying for a test. Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, comes from external rewards or pressures, such as working hard to earn money or completing tasks to gain approval. SDT emphasizes that intrinsic motivation is often more sustainable and fulfilling, as it aligns with an individual’s natural tendencies to grow and develop autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
Incentive Theory
Incentive theory focuses on how external rewards drive behavior. According to this theory, people are motivated to act in ways that lead to rewards or avoid punishments. For example, a student might study diligently to earn a good grade or participate in sports for the prospect of winning a trophy. The strength of the motivation depends on the perceived value of the reward and the likelihood of obtaining it. Incentive theory explains why people sometimes pursue goals even when they do not involve physiological needs, as external rewards can be powerful motivators.
Instincts
Instincts are innate, fixed patterns of behavior that occur in response to specific stimuli. These behaviors are biologically hardwired and are seen in many non-human animals as a means of survival.
Example: Sea turtles instinctively move toward the ocean immediately after hatching, and birds migrate seasonally without needing to be taught. These instinctual behaviors are automatic and not influenced by learning or environmental factors.
In humans, however, the role of instinct in motivation is less clear. Early psychologists, such as William James, proposed that humans had instincts similar to those of animals, such as a maternal instinct or an instinct for self-preservation. However, most modern psychologists argue that humans do not demonstrate fixed patterns of instinctual behavior to the same degree as animals. Instead, human behavior and motivation are largely influenced by learning, culture, and cognitive processes. For instance, while a newborn crying for food might seem instinctual, this behavior can be shaped and modified by experiences over time, making it more complex than a purely instinctual response.
Lewin’s Motivational Conflicts Theory
Lewin’s motivational conflicts theory explains how the need to make choices between competing desires or goals creates internal conflicts that serve as the basis of motivation. According to psychologist Kurt Lewin, these conflicts arise when individuals are pulled between different motives, each with its own appeal or drawbacks. The theory identifies three primary types of motivational conflicts: approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, and approach-avoidance.
In an approach-approach conflict, an individual must choose between two equally desirable options. For example, a student might have to decide whether to spend his or her summer studying abroad in Europe or interning at a prestigious company. Both options are attractive, but the need to select one can create tension.
An avoidance-avoidance conflict occurs when someone must choose between two equally-undesirable outcomes. For instance, a person who dislikes both dental procedures and tooth pain may face a conflict in deciding whether to endure a root canal or continue living with a painful cavity. This type of conflict often causes stress and procrastination, as neither option is appealing.
In an approach-avoidance conflict, an individual is drawn to a goal that has both positive and negative aspects. For example, someone might consider accepting a high-paying job that requires moving far away from family and friends. The conflict stems from the simultaneous attraction and aversion to the same goal. This type of conflict is especially common and can lead to indecision, as the individual weighs the pros and cons of the decision.
Sensation Seeking Theory of Motivation
Sensation seeking theory of motivation suggests that an individual’s need for varied, novel, and intense experiences drives one’s motivation. Proposed by Marvin Zuckerman, the theory identifies “sensation seeking” as a personality trait that varies across individuals, with some people seeking out high levels of stimulation while others are more comfortable with routine and predictability. Sensation seeking behaviors can range from adventurous and creative pursuits to riskier activities depending on the person.
The theory categorizes sensation-seeking into four main types: thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility. Thrill and adventure seeking involves pursuing physically risky activities, such as skydiving, rock climbing, or other extreme sports. These activities are motivated by the associated adrenaline rush and excitement. Experience seeking, by contrast, reflects a desire for new cultural, intellectual, or artistic experiences, such as exploring new places, trying unique foods, or engaging in creative hobbies. Disinhibition refers to the tendency to seek escape or excitement through activities that break social norms or involve impulsive behaviors, such as partying or substance use. Finally, boredom susceptibility describes a low tolerance for routine or repetitive tasks, with individuals quickly losing interest in activities that lack novelty or stimulation.
Hunger
Hunger is a complicated motivation; people don’t eat only because they need food. Many factors, both biological and environmental, influence hunger. These factors—the brain, digestive system, hormones, environmental—interact with one another in many ways.
The Brain
Researchers believe three areas in the hypothalamus play a key role in regulating hunger:
- The lateral hypothalamus is involved in recognizing hunger. In rats, damage to the lateral hypothalamus results in loss of interest in eating.
- The ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus is involved in recognizing satiety or fullness. In rats, damage to the ventromedial nucleus results in excessive eating and weight gain.
- The paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus is also involved in hunger regulation. When the paraventricular nucleus of a rat is damaged, the rat will eat a very large quantity of food at each meal.
The Digestive System
The digestive system influences hunger in several ways. For instance, after a meal, the stomach and intestines send nerve impulses to the brain to help people recognize that they are full.
The body converts food to glucose, a simple sugar that acts as an energy source for cells. The level of glucose in the blood affects hunger. Low blood glucose increases hunger; high blood glucose decreases hunger.
Hormones
The hormone insulin also plays an important role in regulating hunger. Insulin allows cells to access glucose in the blood. When the pancreas secretes insulin, hunger increases.
Ghrelin, often referred to as the “hunger hormone,” is secreted by the stomach and signals the brain to increase appetite.
Another hormone involved in hunger regulation is leptin. Fat cells in the body secrete leptin and release it into the blood. When the leptin level in the blood is high, hunger decreases.
Ghrelin and leptin are regulated by the hypothalamus via the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus integrates these hormonal signals to regulate energy balance and maintain homeostasis.
Environmental Factors
Many environmental factors influence hunger, including the availability of rich foods, taste preferences, habits, memory, stress, and cultural attitudes.
The presence of food: The sight, smell, or even thought of food can trigger the desire to eat, regardless of whether the body is physically hungry. For example, the aroma of fresh-baked cookies may prompt someone to eat even after a full meal. Advertising and food packaging also play a role in stimulating appetite by making food appear more desirable.
Time of day: The time of day significantly impacts eating behavior as well. Many people eat breakfast, lunch, and dinner on a schedule, rather than waiting for physical hunger cues. This behavior is shaped by cultural norms and social expectations, which create occasions for eating that may not align with actual physiological needs.
Social gatherings: Social gatherings are another powerful influence on eating. Eating often becomes a social activity, and people tend to eat more in the company of others than when alone. Social norms, such as sharing a meal during holidays or celebrations, can encourage eating beyond what is necessary. Additionally, peer influence may lead individuals to mirror the eating habits of those around them, such as ordering dessert because everyone else at the table does.
