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A government is an institution entrusted with making and enforcing the rules of a society as well as with regulating relations with other societies. In order to be considered a government, a ruling body must be recognized as such by the people it purports to govern. A person or group that considers itself the leading body of a society has no power if the members of the society do not recognize the person or group as such.
Types of Governments
Most of the world’s governments fall into one of four categories: monarchy, democracy, authoritarianism, or totalitarianism.
Monarchy
Monarchy is a political system in which a representative from one family controls the government and power is passed on through that family from generation to generation. Monarchies can take two main forms: absolute monarchies and constitutional monarchies.
Most of the world’s monarchies are constitutional monarchies, in which the reigning member of the royal family is the symbolic head of state but elected officials actually do the governing. Many European countries have constitutional monarchies.
Example: The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy. The royal family plays a symbolic role, while Parliament and the Prime Minister handle the actual governance.
In an absolute monarchy, the monarch holds absolute authority and has essentially unchecked power to govern. Decisions made by the ruler are not constrained by laws, constitutions, or other political bodies. Absolute monarchies often justify their authority through traditions or religious beliefs.
Example: Saudi Arabia is an example of an absolute monarchy. Historically, the king held complete control over the country’s laws and governance. While reforms have introduced some modern elements, the monarch retains significant authority.
Oligarchy
Oligarchy is a political system in which power is concentrated in the hands of a small group. These groups may be distinguished by wealth, family ties, education, military control, or corporate influence. Unlike democracies, oligarchies limit this group's decision-making participation, leaving the majority of the population without meaningful political influence.
Example: An example of an oligarchy is the apartheid-era South Africa, where a minority white ruling class controlled the government and economy.
Democracy
Democracy is a political system in which citizens periodically choose officials to run their government. Democracies are based in principles such as:
- Rule by the people
- Free and fair elections
- Protection of individual rights
There are two main forms of democracy: direct democracy and representative democracy. In a direct democracy, citizens actively create and vote on laws or policies themselves. This form is more common in small communities or localized settings, as it becomes challenging to implement on a large scale. In a representative democracy, citizens elect officials to make decisions and create laws on their behalf, trusting them to represent their interests and values. This system is widely used in modern, large-scale democratic countries, where direct participation by all citizens on every issue would be impractical. Representative democracies can take various forms, such as parliamentary systems or presidential systems, depending on how power is distributed.
In parliamentary systems, such as in the United Kingdom, the executive branch (the prime minister and cabinet) is directly linked to the legislature, and the government’s authority depends on maintaining the support of the elected parliament. In contrast, presidential systems, like in the United States, keep the executive branch (the president) and the legislative branch (Congress) separate, with each operating independently to balance power.
While democracy is largely considered to promote accountability and individual freedoms, it faces challenges such as low voter turnout, corruption, misinformation, and political polarization. Despite these challenges, democracy remains a widely used system.
Example: Indonesia has a democratic form of government with an elected president and legislature. After declaring autonomy at the end of Japanese occupation in 1945, Indonesia prevailed in its war of independence against the Netherlands in 1949. It struggled with authoritarian dictatorships, civil wars, and economic uncertainty until democracy eventually started gaining a stronger hold in the years around the end of the 20st century. It held its first direct presidential election in 2004. A vast and populous country, Indonesia continues to experience problems including corruption and sectarian unrest, but it has had a mostly stable elected government throughout the current century.
Dictatorship
A dictatorship is a system of government in which a single individual holds absolute power over the state. Dictators typically come to power through force, political maneuvering, or inheritance and often maintain control through the use of propaganda, censorship, and military or police power. Dictatorships can overlap with other systems, such as authoritarianism or totalitarianism, depending on the scope of control exercised by the leader.
Example: An example of a totalitarian dictatorship exists in North Korea under Kim Jong Un, who maintains extensive control over citizens’ daily lives, media, and cultural activities.
Authoritarianism
Authoritarianism is a political system that does not allow citizens to participate in government.
Example: Zimbabwe is controlled by an authoritarian leader whose human rights violations and disastrous economic policies have brought on international condemnation. However, not all authoritarian governments are outcasts. China has an authoritarian government, but it is a member of the World Trade Organization and a major player in international politics.
There is disagreement among theorists about the exact difference between authoritarianism and totalitarianism. Both tend to use brutal tactics to suppress perceived opposition. Totalitarian governments, however, extend their control into virtually all aspects of people’s lives and feature a “cult of personality” around their leader.
Totalitarianism
Totalitarianism is a political system under which the government maintains tight control over nearly all aspects of citizens’ lives.
Example: Cambodia under the regime of Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge from 1976 to 1978 was totalitarian. Under the banner of socialism, Pol Pot attempted a radical reformation of Cambodia. He forced the evacuation of the country’s cities and relocated citizens to communal farms in the countryside, where they were to be “reeducated” to become part of an idealized communist agrarian society. Pol Pot’s secret police tortured and murdered over a million “dissenters,” especially those he viewed as urban intellectuals.
U.S. Politics
Governments take different forms across the world, but each nation develops a system that reflects its unique history, values, and social priorities. In the United States, the political system is rooted in democratic principles.
In the early years of America’s nationhood, individualism and individual rights were valued above all else. Citizens of the United States wanted as little governmental interference in their lives as possible and believed that people should be free to make of their lives whatever they could. Today, most people in the United States recognize the need for government control of such things as schools, roads, and national defense, but citizens disagree about where to draw the line when it comes to the size and scope of government involvement.
The Welfare State
As governments expand their role in society, many develop systems to support citizens’ economic and social well-being. One such system is the welfare state. A welfare state is a type of government in which the state provides for and promotes the social and economic well-being of its citizens. The government provides some sort of social insurance, or benefits, for families or individuals in dire need. The welfare state also includes provisions for government funding of education, health services, and housing.
Since the Great Depression and the New Deal, the United States has greatly increased the welfare programs it offers to its citizens. The amount the United States spends on welfare, however, is still much smaller than the amount spent by other Western nations. In 1996, Congress ended the federal public assistance that guaranteed some income to all poor Americans.
Party Politics
The extent to which a government should provide welfare programs is a major point of political debate. In the United States, differing views on the role of government in social and economic affairs have shaped the nation’s two-party system, with each party advocating distinct approaches to governance and public policy.
The Democratic Party believes that the government should play an active role in promoting the general welfare of the country and takes a liberal stand on social issues.
The Republican Party believes that the government should take a limited role in providing social services and takes a conservative stand on social issues.
Weber’s Power Theory
While political parties shape government through elections and policies, sociologists also examine the deeper structures of power that maintain governments. Max Weber explored the nature of authority and how it legitimizes power within societies. Weber identified power—the ability to achieve ends even in the face of resistance—as the foundation of government. Getting people to comply with a government’s rule also requires authority, which is power people believe is just. Weber labeled three kinds of authority: traditional authority, which rests on well-established cultural patterns; rational-legal authority, which rests on rules and laws; and charismatic authority, which depends on the personal magnetism of one person.
Governments in Conflict
Governments strive to maintain order and authority, but they often face challenges that threaten their stability. These challenges can take the form of internal uprisings, international disputes, or acts of political violence, each shaping the course of history in different ways. Conflicts in governments generally take three forms:
Revolution: A violent overthrow of the government by its citizens. Often, a group of charismatic philosophers and intellectuals sparks the movement.
War: Armed conflict between nations or societies. Societies have always waged war over rights to land and resources or because of conflicting moral, political, or religious objectives. In the twentieth century, the nature of war changed dramatically with the development of nuclear weapons. Massive stockpiling of weapons of mass destruction has made the threat of global annihilation a strong deterrent to war among industrialized nations.
Terrorism: A politically motivated violent attack on civilians by an individual or group. Since few nations have the military strength to attack the United States directly, terrorism by extremist groups within and outside the country has become an increasingly potent threat.
Anarchy
While most societies operate under some form of government, there are instances where formal authority collapses or is deliberately rejected. In these cases, anarchy emerges leading to alternative forms of organization, or in some cases, complete disorder. Anarchy refers to the absence of any formal government or ruling authority. Unlike structured systems of government, anarchy is characterized by a lack of centralized control or organized political structure. In an anarchic state, individuals or groups often rely on self-governance, voluntary associations, and mutual aid to maintain order and address societal needs. Anarchy is sometimes viewed as a temporary state during periods of governmental collapse, such as after a revolution, civil war, or other political upheavals.
