British Stoicism

The British national character has long been defined by its stoicism—that is, by its emphasis on remaining emotionally reserved in the face of adversity. This emphasis on the ability to endure pain or hardship without reaction or complaint is captured in the British idiom of “keeping a stiff upper lip.” Whereas a lip that trembles reveals vulnerability, the “stiff upper lip” maintains a stoic presentation of absolute reserve and emotional stability. Though influenced by the ancient Greek school of Stoic philosophy, British stoicism arguably emerged as a product of Victorian morality and Empire. Broadly speaking, the reign of Queen Victoria (1837–1901) was a time of deep conservatism in Britain, which sponsored a strict and frankly repressive morality rooted in traditional Christian values. The conservatism of Victorian morality was compounded by the fact that, under Victoria, the British Empire had grown to encompass much of the globe through rampant colonization. In relation to their colonial subjects, whom the British viewed as “uncivilized,” the British cultivated a self-image of cool civility that implicitly asserted their own superiority. Kipling was deeply influenced by Victorian values and believed in the imperial “civilizing mission,” the forcing of European ideals on indigenous populations. The vision of masculinity he presents in “If—” is therefore steeped in the stoicism of turn-of-the-century Britain.

The Jameson Raid of 1895

Although he didn’t publish it until 1910, Kipling originally wrote “If—” in 1896, after learning about a British military endeavor that had failed the previous year in South Africa. The so-called “Jameson Raid” was a mercenary operation that played a role in a larger, unauthorized attempt on the part of the British to gain control over a region of South Africa known as the Transvaal. As suggested by the name, the Jameson raid was spearheaded by a man named Sir Leander Starr Jameson. His mission was to incite unrest in the region’s main city, Johannesburg, then use that unrest as an opportunity to assume military control over the city and its resources. However, several logistical errors caused the mission to fail. This failure exacerbated the residual tensions that lingered between the British and Boer populations after the First Boer War of 1880–81. As such, it also contributed to conflicts that eventually resulted in the Second Boer War of 1899–1902. Despite being a massive failure, the Jameson Raid captured Kipling’s imagination. Specifically, he admired the resolute perseverance of the raid’s namesake, Sir Jameson himself. It is this admiration that sponsored the vision of a masculine ideal enshrined in Kipling’s poem.