Before she became famous as Mother Jones,
Mary Harris was one of the many Irish immigrants who braved the
dangerous trans-Atlantic voyage to escape the poverty and famine
of Ireland and seek a better life in America. In the mid-nineteenth
century, the Irish population had become destitute and landless.
When a fungus destroyed the Irish potato crops in the middle of
the nineteenth century, famine spread throughout the country, and
the Irish population became even more destitute. Even in the early
years of her life, therefore, Mary Harris was already a witness
to the ravages of poverty and famine.
The influx of Irish immigrants to the United States provided
U.S. industrial expansion with thousands of cheap workers. Immigrants were
usually the most desperate workers, and company owners used this
desperation to their advantage. In addition, although immigrants
were a vital part of America's industrial expansion in the late
nineteenth century, many Americans felt economically threatened
by the influx of foreign workers. Despite this exploitation and
hostility, more immigrants came to the United States, and the industrial
expansion continued with the construction of the railroads, the
mining of coal, and the production of steel. Corporations formed
and controlled vast areas of production, and business interests
manipulated the government.
As a result, competition between companies decreased,
as they did not have to worry about offering competitive wages.
Consequently, the conditions for miners and other workers worsened, and
they felt an increasing helplessness when attempting to demand better
working conditions or increased wages. Mining was a dangerous occupation,
and accidents killed many people, but if a worker complained, he
would be fired and blacklisted, so that no other company would
hire him. These were typical occurrences in the mine towns across
the United States.
Mary Harris and her family were also desperate immigrants, most
of them laborers. At this time, women were becoming a greater part
of the industrial workforce and providing extra income for their
families. Eventually, children were also put to work in factories.
Mary Harris worked, first as a teacher, then as a dressmaker. She
lived an independent life, but was not at all wealthy. As a dressmaker,
Harris worked primarily for the wealthier classes, and she witnessed
firsthand the frivolity and wealth of the rich.
While wealthy businessmen such as Andrew Carnegie and
John Davidson Rockefeller, Jr. built their empires, poor workers
saw their living conditions decline. Practices such as child labor
were pervasive. This was America's Gilded
Age, a time of great prosperity for some, but great
destitution for many more. Many members of the working class rebelled
against the extreme inequalities of wealth. In the late nineteenth
century, anarchist and socialist organizations had large followings,
and some even demanded the overthrow of capitalism. Despite violent
opposition, workers began to organize successfully, and employers
began to fear the strength and unity of labor unions. Mary Harris's
husband had been an active member of a union, and she saw from
this experience the power and importance of union organization.
Later, while working in Chicago, Harris attended numerous political
meetings and eventually became an organizer of labor unions and
strikes.
In the face of numerous strikes, company owners slowly
and begrudgingly agreed to improve working conditions, and eventually
recognized the unions. By the early twentieth century, public opinion
was skeptical of the excesses of the industrial era. The reformists
of the "Progressive Era" sought solutions to the problems of poverty,
public health, corruption, and other issues. Theodore Roosevelt,
who was President of the United States of America, made an important
gesture when he agreed to see John Mitchell, President of the UMW,
during an anthracite strike. Business was beginning to feel pressure
from the government, which brought anti-trust lawsuits against
corporations that had become so large that they inhibited competition.
The battle for labor and better working conditions continued, even
throughout World War
I. Unions gained more power, even though they still
had to struggle to obtain these concessions. Mother Jones worked
with miners and other workers. She took on the most difficult issues
and went to the most remote places to support workers. She campaigned
on their behalf and rallied them at a time when workers had few
public supporters.
