September 23, 1913, marked the beginning of a massive
coal strike in Colorado. The miner's demands in Colorado were similar
to those that had been made in West Virginia: an eight-hour day, improved
wages, eradication of the guard system, the freedom to organize,
and union recognition. Once again, the mining companies refused
to negotiate, and John Davidson Rockefeller, Jr., who had a large
stake in the mines, refused to even acknowledge the union. This
led to a walkout by about ninety percent of the workers, who were
in turn forced out of the company towns. To house themselves, the
displaced workers built tent cities, the largest of which was called
Ludlow. On the company's orders, mine guards fired with machine
guns into the tent colony, and the strikers retaliated with less
sophisticated weapons. Even though the Secretary of Labor, William
Wilson, acknowledged the rights of the miners and urged arbitration,
the owners refused to give in. The state governor summoned the
state militia, but this military body inevitably ended up on the
side of the owners, furthering the miners' anger and resentment.
Mother Jones brought news of the strike to the nation,
traveling throughout the country and urging for an independent
Congressional investigation. When she tried to return to Colorado
in early January of 1914, she was arrested again. Protests were
held to urge for her release, and over 1,000 women and children
gathered with signs in front of the militia offices. When the protesters
ignored an order to disperse, the general commanding the militia
ordered his soldiers to charge, which injured many of the women
protesting. When a court case threatened the possibility that Mother
Jones might be released, and a precedent set, the militia let her
go in March. Mother Jones continued her crusade, and was again arrested
by the militia and taken to a prison which had been officially deemed
uninhabitable.
Mother Jones was released again, and went to Washington,
D.C. to testify in front of Congress. Meanwhile, at Ludlow, mine
guards opened fire on the miners' celebration of Greek Orthodox
Easter. The strikers returned fire, but once their ammunition ran
out, the guards entered the camp, executed many of the strike leaders
and their families, took prisoners, and to set the camp on fire.
The next day, it became apparent that about twenty people were
dead, mostly women and children. The enraged miners called for
a rebellion, and guerrilla warfare broke out. Protests across the
nation condemned the killings, and vigils and marches occurred
wherever Rockefeller had a presence, including his church of worship
in New York City.
The guerrilla warfare continued, and President Wilson
finally stepped in to encourage reconciliation by putting forth
a conservative plan that imposed a moratorium on strikes without
granting raises or union recognition. The desperate miners were
forced to accept the proposal. However, the mine operators were
determined to eliminate UMW, and preferred to handle the situation
in their own way. Although President Wilson was angry with the
mine owners, he could not force them to accept his plan, and his
efforts at arbitration were fruitless. After the Ludlow massacre
and intense fighting, the miners were devastated and almost starving,
and they returned to work.
The publicity generated by Mother Jones's arrests, and
by the massacres and violence, did lead to a change in American
public opinion that tarnished the images of Rockefeller and his
colleagues. Further investigation revealed that Rockefeller had
detailed knowledge of the events and violence in Colorado, and
even knew about the formation of the special troops used to perform
the Ludlow massacre. Rockefeller put his company through a massive
public relations cleansing in order to improve his image. This
public relations campaign largely involved tarnishing the images
of union leaders such as Mother Jones, but Rockefeller did agree
to an "Industrial Representation Plan" which instituted a policy
of a closed-shop union. Emphasizing his empathy for the workers, Rockefeller
visited the mines and celebrated with the mine families. These
actions gave him good press, and gave him control over a company
union that had all the publicity and credibility of a real union.
The UMW opposed the plan, but it had no power to resist.
