Since the 1870s, most of the major countries in Europe
had been gearing for war with each other. Preparations had been
subtle. The independent German kingdoms united in the 1870s and
had quickly become the largest power on the continent. France meanwhile
was arming heavily in case its centuries-old rival Germany chose
to attack. Russia also feared the growing German threat and sought
to ally itself with Great Britain, France, and even Germany itself
for protection. The British, for their part, tried hard to remain out
of the conflict, but found that having the world's most powerful navy
made that impossible. Rebellious provinces within the Austro-Hungarian
Empire made central Europe extremely unstable, and the leaders
of the Ottoman Empire in the Near East sought to expand their power.
Historians have generally noted that the European powers had managed
to avoid war for so long, that when it did erupt in the autumn of
1914, it quickly escalated into the most deadly war the world had
seen. On one side were the Germans, Austro-Hungarians, and the
Ottoman Turks united as the Central powers, while Great Britain,
France, and Russia fought together as the Entente powers on the
other.
Although most Americans felt more inclined to side with England
and the Entente Allies, very few wanted the United States to enter
the Great War. The U.S. had a strong precedent of distancing itself
from European political entanglements, and had no desire to alter
that tradition. Not only were the American people united in this
sentiment, but Congress and the President as well. In a public appeal,
Wilson announced that the United States "must be neutral in fact
as well as in name" and "impartial in thought as well as in action."
Americans continued to conduct business as always. As
a neutral nation, America and its merchants initially traded goods
such as food, clothing, medicines, equipment, and even arms to
both sides in the war. American ports were open to all powers so
long as they were used for non-military purposes. At first, both
belligerent powers agreed not to interfere with neutral shipping
lines. It is true that both powers often seized American merchant
ships, but this provided few serious problems since both sides
paid for the cargo they seized.
But actions taken by the Germans during the early course
of the war quickly caused many Americans to look more favorably
on the Entente powers in both thought and action. Soon, it seemed
to the Germans that the United States traded more with England
and France than with Germany. More importantly, the Germans were having
trouble receiving any goods from the U.S. and other
nations, as the British Navy had placed an impenetrable blockade
around the European continent. Suffering from a severe lack of
supplies and food, Germany consequently began a great submarine
campaign in February of 1915. Submarine, or U-boat, technology
had only recently been perfected, and Germany had produced a large
fleet of the new vessels prior to the outbreak of war.
As submarine technology was so new, regular naval ships
had no method of defense. The German U-boat campaign was therefore
so effective that even Germany was astonished by its success. Furthermore,
Germany announced that it could no longer guarantee the safety
of neutral ships. Wilson realized that this new campaign escalated
the war to a new level, and he therefore began to push for mediation
and settlement. He extended his services as arbiter to both sides
and all nations involved. In 1915, he sent his trusted friend and
advisor Col. Edward House to England, France, and Germany to propose
a peace settlement. Neither side was willing to listen, however,
because each thought it had the upper hand and would ultimately
win the war. At the same time, Wilson also notified Germany that
serious consequences would result if American lives were lost from
illegal German submarine warfare.
The situation become more tense in May of 1915 when Americans
learned that the British ocean liner Lusitania had
been destroyed by a German submarine. Over 120 Americans, including women
and children, were among the nearly 1,200 casualties. Despite their
outrage, however, the American people, Congress, and Wilson still
wished to remain out of the conflict. Wilson declared that the
U.S. would not retaliate, as peace was in the world's best interest.
Instead, he dispatched a series of communiqués to Germany, appealing
to their sense of morality to end their attacks on nonbelligerent
shipping. William Jennings Bryan believed the communiqués were
too aggressive. Fearing war with Germany, he chose to resign his
position as Secretary of State rather than sign Wilson's note.
The Germans understood the request, but only partially respected
it. Within months another British liner, the Arabic, was sunk
by a U-boat torpedo. Wilson again demanded the Germans to scale
down the submarine attacks, and again the German government gave
only a half-hearted acknowledgment. Then, in early 1916, Germany
announced that it would begin attacking all merchant ships without
warning in the waters around Europe, including neutral merchants.
Wilson notified Berlin that this policy was illegal according to
the international rules of war and were therefore unacceptable.
Germany responded only with the destruction of the steamer Sussex in
March. At this point, Wilson threatened to end all diplomatic relations
with Germany, an act that would surely bring the United States
into war against Germany. To prevent this–the German Emperor knew
he could not defeat the combined strength of the Entente powers
and the United States–Germany agreed to respect certain shipping
lines. War had been averted, but only for a time.
