Summary
On May 18, 1804, Napoleon proclaimed himself emperor,
and made Josephine Empress. His coronation ceremony took place
on December 2, 1804, in the Cathedral of Notre-Dame in Paris, with incredible
splendor and at considerable expense. Napoleon even paid for Pope
Pius VII, who had signed the Concordat of Rome, to travel to France
for the occasion, believing that his presence would imbue the event
with a solemn, religious feeling. Pius agreed to come, hoping
to win Napoleon's goodwill towards Rome and the Papal States. However,
at the ceremony, Napoleon surprised everyone by not allowing the
Pope to crown him. Instead, he placed the crown on his own head,
and then crowned Josephine Empress. A few months later, on May
26, 1805, Napoleon crowned himself again– this time with the iron
circlet that symbolized the rule over all of Italy.
Napoleon next moved to recreate an aristocracy, a long
French tradition that had been eliminated by the Revolution. In
1808, Napoleon started granting titles of nobility to people who
served him particularly well.
The royal court of the French Emperor became a public
spectacle of pomp and elegance. Court protocol and rules of etiquette became
very complex and regimented. Josephine reveled in her new role
as Empress, and cultivated a famously impressive style. Yet Napoleon
himself, even though he had intentionally made a spectacle of his
court, found his new role somewhat uncomfortable and difficult.
He preferred to work long hours in his study to escape from court
life.
Napoleon now led a double life. On the one hand, he was
a stately Emperor cloaked in ermine robes. On the other hand,
he was an obsessive workaholic, often staying in his study for
days on end writing letters and preparing various plans. Yet Napoleon understood
well the importance of maintaining a splendid image: he commissioned
all the leading French artists to create art that would depict
a positive view of the Empire. Chief among these artists was Jacques-Louis
David, whose paintings and portraits depicted Napoleon as intensely
heroic.
After executing the Bourbon prince, Napoleon realized
that he had no hope of ever getting the support of the Royalists.
It was for this reason that he decided he had nothing to lose
by dispensing altogether with the illusion of Republic he had maintained
by way of the Consulate, and openly proclaimed himself Emperor,
a title that reflected his true role. Napoleon invoked the tradition
of Charlemagne's early 9th-century Frankish Empire by adopting
that emperor's symbol, the spread-winged eagle.
Napoleon's dictatorial ambitions were illustrated by his
self-coronation and resultant slighting of the Pope. Why did Napoleon want
to invite the Pope if he was going to crown himself? He did so to
heighten the importance of his action. By putting the imperial crown
on his own head while the Pope stood by, Napoleon made a symbolic
gesture stating that he would be subservient to no one on earth,
and that Rome would never command him.
